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JOIWERY 

Cabinet. 

Making 

Carpentry 



R13SC/\-CONWAY 




Class T \ 1^ 
Book 1^ ^5 
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CQEXRIGHT DEPOSm 




Heavy Stand of Red Fie with Hemlock Undeegeowth, Pieece County, Wash. 



SHOP WORK 

Joinery — Cabinet-Making — Carpentry 



BT 



HERMAN F. RUSCH 

Director of Manual Training, 
Oldalioma City, OTcla. 



CLAUD CARLTON CONWAY 

Director of Iron Worlc, 
OJclahonm City High School, Oklahoma 




Industrial Book & Equipment Company, 

Indianapolis 

191S 






COPYRIGHT 1918 
By 

INDUSTRIAL BOOK & EQUIPMENT COMPANY, 
Indianapolis. 



OCT -7 isifi; : 

©CI.A503728 



INDUSTRIAL AND VOCATIONAL TEXTS 

BEING A SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS DESIGNED FOR 
USE IN THE ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY 
SCHOOLS, COLLEGES AND ACADEMIES OFFERING 
COURSES OF INSTRUCTION IN THE TRADES, CRAFTS, 
WAGE-EARNING PURSUITS AND HOME ECONOMICS. 

Edited By 

Charles Kettleborough, Ph. D. 
Director, Indiana Legislative Bureau. 



EDITOR'S PREFACE 

The importance of industrial and vocational training has long 
since been recognized by the leading educators of the country and has 
now been formally installed in the public schools by the necessary stat- 
utory action of the federal government and most of the states. Its 
necessity has been emphasized and its introduction greatly facilitated 
by the acute exigencies produced by the World War. In the period of 
reconstruction and re-adjustment following the war, the amplification 
of courses of vocational instruction will doubtless be greatly accelerated. 
The complete and successful fruition of industrial training has been 
somewhat retarded by a lack of satisfactory scientific texts and other 
indispensable instrumentalities. In offering this series to the public, 
it is the confident belief of the editor that a rational approach to a 
knowledge of the fundamental principles and technique of the various 
trades, crafts and industrial pursuits will be afforded. This text, which 
is a treatise on shop work in its various aspects, has been compiled by 
Herman F. Rusch and Claud Carlton Conway. Both authors possess 
an accurate scientific knowledge of the principles of cabinet-making, 
carpentry and joinery, to which has been added extensive experience 
in the application of these principles to practical work, supplemented 
by a working knowledge of the most approved methods of imparting 
information to students. This treatise is put forth as the first of a series 
of texts dealing with industrial and vocational subjects in the confident 
belief that it will prove successful as a working manual in the subject 

to which it is devoted. 

The Editor. 



AUTHORS' PREFACE 

This book is the outgrowth of eighteen years of teaching in high 
schools and many more spent in practical construction work, in wood 
and iron, before our affiliation with industrial school work began. It 
consists of a compilation of such notes and lectures as we believe are 
important to the wood-worker. It is not intended in any way to sup- 
plant any of the work at the bench, but is designed to be used in connec- 
tion with bench work to enable the student to approach his work more 
intelligently. The book is not designed as a self-instructor, but as a 
student's text to be used by the teacher, just as he would use a text in 
mathematics. To secure the best results in the use of any text, supple- 
mentary work must be done, and wood-working is no exception to the 
rule. 

The work presented in this text is so designed as to require two 
years, working two hours per day, in its completion, and is intended 
as a ready reference for the pupil and the teacher. It will be observed 
that in this text cabinet-making follows joinery. It is not necessary 
that cabinet work should be taken before carpentry. If the student 
so desires, he may take either cabinet-making or carpentry or both, 
after he has finished joinery. All joint exercises should be worked out 
by the teacher in class demonstrations. 

The following brief, synoptical analysis may be of service to the 
teacher in the development of the subject as a whole. 

Part I deals exclusively with the tools used in manual training 
shops, and with illustrations relative to the correct positions. Chapter 
III, Development of a Project, is worthy of careful analysis, since it 
indicates a general method of approach and order of work, and since 
the constructive work involves the use of so many methods. Care must 
be taken that too many tools are not presented to the pupil at once. Do 
not take up the use of a new tool for the sake of the tool but for the 
sake of the exercise which calls for the use of that particular tool. 

Part II outlines a course in bench work, beginning with a series 
of joints which are standard the world over. Just how many joints 
the pupil shall make is a matter the teacher himself must determine. 
They are arranged in an order such that there is a gradual rise from 
the simpler to the more difficult and complex joints. This continuity 
should be followed in the presentation. In this series of joints, the 
fundamentals of all joint construction, whether they are in cabinet- 
making, in common carpentry, or in bridge building, will be found. The 
extended list of suggested projects for construction Should prove of 



viii AUTHORS' PREFACE 

great value to the instructor. Just enough is presented on each project 
to start the student in its development. 

Part III consists of a series of talks which cover a wide field in 
practical tool usage, and which present many other things of vital im- 
portance to the artisan. It gives information which may be applied 
daily by the mechanic. These talks should be taken up, not necessarily 
in the order given, but in the order best suited to the teacher's own 
course. For example, a demonstration is given on how to sharpen a 
plane iron. It would naturally follow that this would be the proper time 
to present the talk on "Abrasives" ; or if the first lesson on sandpapering 
is before the class, the talk on "Sandpaper" should be given. 

Part IV deals with miscellaneous topics as applied to shop work. 
The questions should be given in class, in oral recitations, so that each 
pupil may familarize himself with the technical terms. The problems 
may be assigned for work outside of recitation, and others may be 
substituted to embody certain features of the pupil's own exercise under 
construction. 

The glossary is intended for the use of those who are not familiar 
with certain technical terms and phrases. 

There is no special reason for numbering the Blue Prints as they 
are, beginning with 400. It will be observed that the number of illus- 
trative Figures is just under three hundred. To avoid duplication in 
numbering and to facilitate the location of the cuts, figures and draw- 
ings referred to were the only considerations observed in assigning 
numbers beginning with 400 to the Blue Prints. The letters B. P., 
which will be found at the end of the paragraphs in the chapter on 
Joinery, refer, of course, to the Blue Prints. 

It is the belief of the authors that the working drawings, lectures, 
tool references, constructive information, suggested projects, questions 
and problems amply justify the publication of this book. If the book 
shall prove to be of material assistance in the unification of a course 
of study, embodying both practical and cultural training, it will have 
served its purpose. While we believe that the cultural side of industrial 
work should not be overlooked, yet "the search-light of practical expe- 
rience should illuminate the dark places of theory". 

In conclusion, the authors wish to acknowledge their obligations 
and indebtedness to the many persons whose generous contributions 
and suggestions have aided materially in making possible the publica- 
tion of this work, and in particular to Helen Ferris, English critic, 
Oklahoma City High School, for valuable assistance in correcting and 
clarifying the English. 

H. F. RuscH. 

Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. C. C. Conway. 

June 14, 1918. 



SHOP ETHICS AND REGULATIONS. 

No other deparUiient of educational work offers a better chance 
for the student to learn to work harmoniotisly with others than the 
Industrial Department. The following suggestions will help those who 
try to observe the proper ethics of work shops. 

Be prompt to begin work, and work faithfully until quitting time. 

Check your tool list and make sure all your tools are in the proper 
place. In case of shortage^ report it at once to the instructor in charge, 
so you will not be held responsible for those missing. 

Tools that are b^'oken by carelessness are to be replaced by the 
students breaking them. 

Each student must furnish the "individual equipment." 

Borrow no private tools and be neat and considerate with the tools 
for general use. Return the tools for general use to their special rack 
or cabinet as soon as you are through with them. Lock up your private 
tools only. 

Be deliberate and thoughtful. Work for quality, not quantity. 

At the close of the period, put your tools away, brush the shavings 
to the end of the bench, have everything neat and in good order, so you 
will not be called back when you leave. 

Both enjoy and make a business of your work. 

Demonstrations of the uses of the woodworking machinery will be 
made, but no students will be permitted to run any of the machines, 
except the tool grinder, unless it is- under the direct supervision of the 
instructor in charge. 

The department is not responsible to any of the students in case 
of a breach of its regulations. 



RESAWS. 

It is easier to criticise than to create. 

Courtesy costs little and buys much. 

Confidence is the companion of success. 

Many a man shortens his days by lengthening his nights. 

To be successful, you nntst plan the start as well as the finish. 

The devil tempts all men, but the idle man teinpts the devil. 

If you resent authority, you stand a small chance of assuming it. 

Inspiration is more liable to strike a busy man than an idle one. 

Failure is not the worst thing in the world; the very worst is not 
to try. 

It is a little farther around the corners of a square deal, but the 
road is better. 

A bold front is a good thing only when anchored to a stiff back- 
hone. 

Bad luck ruins one man in a hundred, good luck ruins the other 
ninety-nine. 

The man of good judgvient is like a pin, his head prevents his going 
too far. 

The nuan who thinks ahead of his work is a sure winner over the 
one who works ahead of his think. 

True efficiency will come only to the man whose heart is in his 
work, and tuill never come with discontent. 



CONTENTS 

Editor's Preface _ . t 

Authors' Preface __ _ vii 

Shop Ethics and Regulations ix 

Resaws ^ xi 

Part I — Drawings, Equipment, Projects and Accidents. 

CHAPTER I 

Working Drawings 
Working Drawings — Scale — Blue Prints — Elevation — Lines — Plan of Work 3 



CHAPTER II 

Shop Equipment 

Tool and Machine Equipment — Bench Design and Construction — ^Vises — Bench Stop 
— Bench Dog — Bench Hook — Drawing Board, Triangles and T-Square — Bench 
Brush — Bench Types, Equipment and Methods — Historic Measures — Stand- 
ard Yard — Metric Standard — Units — Linear Measure — Graduated Measuring 
Tools — Steel Square — Try Square — Rule— Marking Gauge — TrBevel — Level — 
Wing Divider or Compass — Sloyd Kiiife — ^Awl — Saws — Ripsaw — Use of 
Handsaw — Backsaw — Use of Backsaw — Planes— Bench Planes — Block Plane 
— Cabinet Scraper — Burnisher — Draw Knife — Spoke Shave — Cornering Tool 
— Squaring Stock — Wood Chisel — Tang and Socket Firmer Chisels — Chisel 
Handles — Chisel Blades — Sharpening Tools — Halving Joints — Concave Sur- 
faces — End Beveling — Beveling — Mortises — Circular Pieces — Mallets — Ham- 
mers — Driving Nails — Nail Sets — Pulling Nails — Carpenters' Pincers — Screw 
Drivers — Driving Screws — ^Vises — Hand Screws — Clamps — C-Clamps — Impro- 
vised Clamp — Use of Braces and Bits — Locating Centers — Securing Bored 
Stock — Boring Through — Depth Gauge — Ratchet — Tool Sharpening — Chisel 
Sharpening — Plane Iron Sharpening — Gouge Sharpening — Knife Sharpening 
— Cabinet Scraper Sharpening 5 

CHAPTER HI . . 

Development of a Project 

Plans and Specifications — Construction of Rack — Parts — Laying Out the Back — 
Shaping the Back — The Support — The Arms — Cross Rail and Dowel — As- 
sembling — Finishing 33 

CHAPTER IV 

Machinery 

Woodworking Machinery — Universal Saw Bench — Band Saw — Surfacer — Hand 
Planer and Jointer — Lathes — Trimmer — Oil Stone Edge Grinder — Machine 
Tools— Wrenches — Oiler — Pliers — Snips — Safe Guards 40 



xiv CONTENTS 

CHAPTEPt V 

Accidents and Theik Treatment 

Accidental Injuries— Wounds — Fractures — Bums and Scalds — Sprains , 46 

Part II — Shop Work. 

CHAPTER I 
JOINEBT 

Joints — Joint Types — Classification; of Joints — Box Joints — Plain Butt Joints — 
Butt Joints, Blocked and Glued — Hopper Butt Joints — Rabbet Joints — Dove- 
tail Dado Joints — Plain Dado Joints — Multiple Dovetail Joints — Half Blind 
Dovetail Joints — Ledged Miter Joints — Miter and Butt Joints — Framing 
Joints — Butt Joints — Draw-Bolt Joints — Cross Lap Joints — Beveled Halving 
Joints — Lap-Dovetail Joints — Cogged Joints — Mortised and Tenou Joints — 
Blind Mortise and Tenon Joints — Doweled Mortise and Tenon Joints — Keyed 
Mortise and Tenon Joints — Open Mortise and Tenon Joints — Mortise and 
Tenon Joints with Relish— Trussed Mortise and Tenon Joints — Wedged Mor- 
tise and Tenon Joints — Fox-Tail Tenon Joints — Double Mortise and Tenon 
Joints — Single Dove-Tail Joints — Thrust Joints — Housed Brace Joints — 
Oblique Mortise and Tenon Joints — Bridle Joints — Scarf Joints — Splice 
Joints — Bird's Mouth Joints — Surface Joints — Plain Miter Joints — Splined 
Miter Joints — Stretcher Joints — Edge-to-Edge Joints — Stress — Tensional 
Stress — Compressional Stress— Transverse Stress — Computation of Stress 51 

CHAPTER II 

Cabinet Making as Applied in Fuenituee Consteuction 

Furniture — Legs — Panel Leg — Mission Style Leg — Modified Mission Style Leg — 
French Leg — Turned and Fluted Leg — Back Legs — Rails — Straight Rails 
Curved Rails — Turned Rails — Chair Arms and Rockers — Shelving — Foot 
Boards — Panels and Paneling — Rabbeting — Panel Effects — Moulding — Batting 
Drawer Fronts — Tops — Cleating — Edging — Surfacing— Forms of Tops — As- 
sembling — Laying Tops — Designs — ^Ascertaining Cost — Specimen Bill 61 

CHAPTER III 

Caepentey 

House Planning — Estimate of Cost — Procedure — Staking out for Foundation — 
Excavation — Foundation — Plates — Sills — Joists — Beams — Bridging 
— Studs — Floor Lining — Boxing — Cornice — Classification of Roofs — Rafters — 
Sheathing — Shingling — Comb-Boards — Window and Door Frames — Window 
Frames — Door Frames — Jambs — Grounds — Corner Strips — Siding — Base — 
Floor — Stairs — Pitch — Risers — Landing — Risers, Treads and Skirting Boards 
— Newel Posts, Hand Rails and Spindles — Well Hole — Porches — Scaffolding — 
Snapping Lines 75 

CHAPTER IV 

Beads and Mouldings 

Beads — Mouldings — Crown Mouldings — Intermediate Mouldings — Base Mouldings — 

Designation of Moulding Forms 89 



CHAPTER V 

Veneek and Its Application 

Veneering — Sawed and Rotary Cut Veneer — Veneer and Solid Built Stock — Core 
Stock — Preparing Veneer — Veneering Regular and Irregular Surfaces — 
Veneer Designs — Veneering Cylinders and Cones — Panel Work Veneer 91 



CONTENTS XV 

Part III— Shop Talks. 

CHAPTER I 

Steel Square 

Steel Square— Scales and Tables— Essex Board Measure— Octagon Scale— Angle 
Cuts for Polygons— Brace Measure— Rise of Rafters— Run of Rafters- 
Pitch of Rafters— Rafter Cuts— Hip Rafters— Plumb and Side Cuts— Valley 
Rafters— Jack and Cripple Rafters . 9'^ 

CHAPTER II 

Saws 

Special Handy Saw— Compass Saws— Scroll and Web Saws— Butcher Saws— Hack 
Saws- Band Saws— Circular Saws— Coping Saws— Cylinder Saws— Miter 
Box— Saw Construction- Material— Process of Manufacture— Tempering— 
Smithing— Grinding— Final Touches— Vanadium Saws— Saw Parts— Sharp- 
ening— Sharpening Rip Saws— Finishing— Sharpening a Two-Man Cross-Cut 
Saw— Sharpening Circular Saws— Sharpening Cut-ofC Saws— Sharpening 
Band Saws — History of Saw Sets— Use of Saw Sets 104 

CHAPTER nil 

Fastening Devices 

Nails— Classification of Nails— Common Nails— Casing Nails— Finish Nails— Brads 
—Wrought Nails— Cut Nail&— Standard Gauges— Screws— Sizes of Screws— 
Kinds of Screws— Lag Screws— Corrugated Steel Fasteners— Tacks— Glue- 
Glue Material— Liquid Glue — Glue Joints 113 

CHAPTER IV 

Braces 

Parts of Brace— Carpenters' Bit Brac^-Chuck— Ratchet— Cranked Handle Swing 

— Cap — Reciprocating Drill — Breast Drills 119 

CHAPTER V 

Auger Bits 

Boring Tools— Cutting Action— Manufacture — Head, Nib, Lip and Spur— Sizes of 
Auger Bits— Resharpening of Auger Bits— Shanks— Dowel and Ship Bits- 
Extension Bit— Irwin Bit— Russell Jennings Bit— Ford Bit— Fostner Bit- 
Expansion Bit— Gimlet Bit— Counter and Gauge Sinks— Reamers— Screw 
Drivers— Spoke Pointers, Fore Augers, Hollow Augers and Dowel Sharpeners 121 

CHAPTER VI 

Abrasives 

Grindstones— Composition— Truing— Speed of Stones— Oil Stones— Artificial Stones 

Emery Corundum — Carborundum — Speed of Artificial Stones 125 

^ CHAPTER VII 

Sandpaper 

Details of Manufacture— Strength— Gluc^-Ingredients— Process of Manufacture 

— Quality and Care — Steel Wool 128 



xvi CONTENTS 

CHAPTER VIII 
Files and Rasps 



Historical — Hand Cut Files — Machinery Cut Files — Sizes and. Kinds — Features — 
Cuts — Length, Tang, Thickness and Kind — File Cleaners — Use of Files — 
Machine and Hand-made Files 131 

CHAPTER IX 

Facts Aboxjt Wood 

Uses and Nature of Wood — Logging — Transportation — Sawmills — Timber — Milling 
— Seasoning — Warping and Cracking — Decay of Woods — Methods of Preser- 
vation — Strength of Timber — Gtrain— Markings — Board Measure — Tulip or 
Yellow Poplar — The White Ash — The Sugar Maple — American Elm — The 
Chestnut — The Hickory — Basswood — The American White Oak — Black 
Walnut — Western Red Cedar — Red Gum — The Redwoods — White Pine — The 
Longleaf Pine — The Shortleaf Pine — The Bald Cypress — Spruce — Douglas 
Fir— Birch 135 

CHAPTER X 

Facts About Brushes 

Materials and Methods — Dusters and Artists' P.rushes — Bristles — Care of 

Brushes 159 

CHAPTER XI 

Wood Finishing 

I'urpose — Classes of Finishes — Exterior Finishes — Pigments — White Lead — Dutch 
Process — Carter Processi — Linseed Oil — Chinese Wood Oil — Colors — Color 
Shades — Composition — Application of Paint — Interior Finishes — Stains — 
Stain Shades — Fuming — Fillers — Use of Liquid Fillers — Use of Paste Fillers 
— Application of Fillers — Shellac — Use of Shellac — Turpentine — Varnishes 
— Rubbing Varnish — Pitting of Varnish — Cracking or Checking of Var- 
nish — Chilling of Varnish — Kauri Gum — Manilla Gum — Zanzibar Copal 
— Damar Gum — Filtering and Aging of Varnish — Uses of Varnish — Wax 
— ^Application of Interior Finishes — Natural Finish — Stains — Order of Appli- 
cation — Things to Remember 163 

CHAPTER XII 

Period Furniture 

Furniture Types — Egyptian — Early European — Renaissance — Lines and Harmony 
— Jacobean — William and Mary — Queen Anne — Louis XIV. XV, and XVI — 
Chippendale — The Brothers Adam— Hepplewhite — Sheraton— The Empire 
Period — Mission Craft 174 

Part IV — Questions, Problems, Glossary. 

CHAPTER I 

Questions . 187 

CHAPTER II 

Problems 190 

CHAPTER III 
Glossary 194 



PART I 
DRAWINGS, EQUIPMENT, PROJECTS AND ACCIDENTS 



CHAPTER I 
WORKING DRAWINGS 

Working Draivings. — Working drawings are exact projections or 
representations of objects, in whole or in part, usually reduced, but 
frequently enlarged, to a convenient scale ; they are used for the guidance 
and c<?nvenience of one person who is developing problems created by 
another. 

Scale. — The term "scale", as used in mechanics, means the ratio 
or relative proportion of the size or linear dimensions of the parts of a 
drawing to the size or dimensions of the corresponding parts of the 
object represented. It will be seen quite readily that the working draw- 
ing of a house would be too large to be drawn on paper the actual size 
of the house, and that the details of a small machine so drawn would 
be too small to insure accuracy. Scales so drawn as to represent one- 
fourth and one-half of an inch to the foot, one-half size, one-fourth size, 
two and four times the size of the object are most commonly used. 

Blue Prints. — In creating data, the working drawings or sketches 
become the plans, and the written descriptions of material, finishes and 
other necessary details are known as the specifications. In developing 
problems, it becomes necessary quite frequently to reproduce the plans. 
This is done by making prints which generally are shadows of the lines 
and characters of the original plans. In developing prints, a sensitive 
paper is placed in a printing frame behind the original drawing and 
exposed to the light. The length of exposure depends on the kind and 
disposition of the light, the character of the paper and the transparency 
of the material upon which the original drawing is made. The sensitive 
paper, after being properly exposed, is washed in water. The process 
thus observed develops an accurate reproduction of the original draw- 
ing known as a blue print in which the white lines are the shadows. 
Since blue print paper shrinks unevenly when drying, it is safer, when- 
ever possible, to use the measurements given by the figures on the blue 
print or in the specifications than to scale the blue print. 

Elevation.— It is often necessary to represent different sides of an 
object in the working drawings. This is done by revolving the object 
and drawing the view of the side presented. The outline of a side and 

3 



SHOP WORK 



its modifications is called an elevation. There are end elevations, side 
elevations, and top elevations. C, in Fig. 1, represents an end elevation ; 
B a side elevation ; looking down upon an( object develops the plan A 
or a top elevation. 



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^ 



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I 



Y\G. 1. — Working Drawing. 



■5-6^ 



Lines. — Each line used in a drawing has a distinct and well defined 
meaning. The lines used in common practice are represented below in 
Fig. 2. A is a solid line and indicates the visible edge of an object. 
B is a solid line, usually light, broken only for figures, as 8'-6", and has 
arrow heads at its ends. These arrows indicate the measurements repre- 

— senting 8'-6" (eight feet six inches). C 
-^ is a dotted line used to indicate hidden 

- - parts. D is a dash line used in projecting 
H the elevations and plans. E is a dash- 

and-dot line used as means of representing 
projection centers, revolving solids, etc. 
The lines are usually placed to the right 

and below the working drawings of the object. Point out these various 

lines as used in Fig. 1. 



By 

£ - 



£ 

Fig. 2. — Drawing Lines. 



Plan of Work. — Much time and material will be saved by a careful 
study of the plans and specifications before the work on any project is 
started. Before beginning tool work on the material, be fully advised 
as to what to do and how to go about it. 



CHAPTER II 



SHOP EQUIPMENT 

(Representing the equipment items for the average well equipped 
school shop. See Fig. 3.) 



BENCH TOOLS. 

Planes 

Jack 

Smooth 

Block 
Chisels (One inch; five-eighth 

inch ; three-eighth inch ; 

one-eighth inch). 

Tang 

Socket 
Back Saw 
Try Square 
Hammer 
Marking Gauge 
Rule 
T-Bevel 
Screw Driver 
Mallet 
Bench Hook 
Brush 
Drawing Board 

INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT FOR 
STUDENT. 

Cap 
Apron 

Pocket Knife 
Pencil 

Plane Iron (Furnished by De- 
partment) 

GENERAL TOOLS. 

Steel Square 
Level 



Clamps 

Draw Knife 

Spoke Shave 

Snips 

Pincers 

Pliers 

Cornering Tool 

Wrench 

Glass Cutter 

Nail Set 

Awl 

Dowel Plate 

Dowel Sharpener 

Sloyd Knife 

Cabinet Scraper 

Burnisher 

Wing Divider 

Bit Braces 

Automatic Boring Tool 

Bits 

Saws 

Miter Box 

Rasps and Files 

Abrasives 

MACHINE EQUIPMENT. 

Universal Saw Bench 

Band Saw 

Wet Tool Grinder 

Jointer 

Surfacer 

Trimmer 

Wood Lathes 




Fig. 3. — ^Tool Kit. 



THE WORK BENCH. 

Bench Design and Construction. — In their etisentials, work benches 
differ only in size and in the methods used in fastening tlie parts to- 
gether. It is generally agreed that the most practicable work bench 
for manual training shops is a single (individual) bench, wholly in- 
closed, and equipped with individual lockers, tool locker, side and end 
vises, bench stop, bench dog and a tool recess. To insure absolute 
stability, the material used in constructing work benches should be 
clear, selected, hard wood — preferably maple. The rigidity of the bench 
is dependent on the design and construction of the frame. Therefore 
all joints should be doweled and glued and fastened with drav/ bolts. 
To prevent checking and warping, the top should be built of strips, 
securely fastened together, either by dovetailing or by dowels and glue, 
and firmly attached to the frame by means of lag screws. It is generally 
agreed that a top should be one and three-fourths inches or more in 
thickness as this will insure a solid working surface. In the construc- 
tion of tops, two distinct plans are followed. One plan is to build the 
top of strips, from three-fourths to one and three-fourths inches in 
thickness, and as much as two or three inches in width, laid flat. The 
other plan necessitates the use of strips from three-fourths to seven- 
eighths of an inch in thickness and stood on edge, thus exposing the 



SHOP EQUIPMENT 7 

edge grain for a working surface. The lockers should be nailed and 
glued. When completed, the work bench should be given an oil finish 
which will bring out the wood coloring and preserve the material. A 
coat of shellac should be applied occasionally to help preserve the wood. 
This bench, complete as described, presents a neat appearance in the 
room, is dust proof, and meets the demands of a modern shop. (See 
Fig. 4.) 








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1' ! 



r^. 



Fig. 4. — Typical Work Bench, 
BENCH EQUIPMENT. 

Each work bench should be 
equipped with vises, bench stop, 
bench dog, bench hook, a drawing 
board, a T-square and a bench 
brush. 

Vises. — Each bench should be 
equipped with rapid acting side 
and end vises to hold stock that is 
being worked upon. (See Fig. 5.) 
Bench Stop. — The bench stop is a device, 

rectangular in shape, made of metal, and so de- 
signed as to be raised and lowered by a spring, 

and when not in use remains level with the top 

of the bench. It is used to hold stock that is 

being surfaced. The stock is butted against the 

stop when raised. Small extensions on the stop 

sink into the end grain and hold the stock. 




Fig. 5. — Rapid-Acting Vise. 




Fig. 6. — Bench 
Stop. 




Fig. 7. — Bench 
Dog. 




SHOP WORK 

Bench Dog. — The bench dog is .a metal device, rect- 
angular in shape, and is fastened in holes at regular in- 
tervals on the top of the bench. It is used in conjunction 
with the vises to hold the stock firm. (See Fig. 7.) 

Bench Hook. — The bench hook is a tool designed to 
hold light stock and to prevent the scarring of the bench 
during the process of sawing. It consists of a board with 
a cross cleat screwed on each side at opposite ends. One cleat prevents 
the bench hook from slipping over the top of the bench and the other 
serves as a top for the piece being sawed. 

Drawing Board, Triangles and T-Square. — A drawing board, 60- 
and 45-degree triangles, and a T-square are essential in every bench 
equipment. They are used in sketching, designing and in making work- 
ing drawings. 

Bench Brush. — A bench brush 

is indispensible as a means of 

cleaning the top of the work bench. 

Brushes of the duster type, with 

FIG. s.-Bench Beush. handles, are the best for this class 

of work. Methods of manufactur- 
ing brushes will be found in Chapter X, Part III, entitled "Facts About 
Brushes." (See Fig. 8.) 

Bench Types, Equipment and Methods. — A common way to hold 
stock for sawing is illustrated in Fig. 9 where a board is placed on 
a pair of saw horses. This is a form of primitive bench still in general 
use for laying out and working up large stock. Fig. 10 shows a bench 
especially adapted for carpentry. It is long and provided with a wide 
skirting board in which are bored holes. A, for pins that help to steady 
long boards when planing. Fig. 11 is a bench used largely in school 
shops. It is provided with both side, A, and end, B, rapid acting vises ; 
also a benchstop, C, a bench dog, D, and a tool recess, E. In order 
to do efficient sawing, the stock must be held firm, and Fig. 9 shows 
how it is fastened on saw horses. A in Fig. 9 shows the correct posi- 
tion of a saw in relation to' the stock when ripping, and B shows the 
position of the saw when cross cutting. Fig. 10 shows a method of 
fastening a long board in a carpenter's bench and the position of the 
cross-cut saw, B. Fig. 11 shows how a board, F, may be held in a vise 
while cutting with a rip saw, G, and H shows the bench hook when 
used in connection with the back saw, I, while making a finished cut on 
a piece of stock, J, 



SHOP EQUIPMENT 




Fig. 9.— Saw Horses. Fig. 10.— Carpenter's Bench. Fig. 11.— School Shop Bench. 



10 SHOP WORK 

MEASURES. 

Historic Measures. — Formerly measurements and weights were 
compared with objects of indefinite lengths and varying weights. King 
Charles I commanded that the length of his arm should define a yard. 
Again, in the year 1266, the weight of an English penny was referred 
to as the weight of thirty-two wheat grains taken from the middle of 
the ear. Of course the length of King Charles' arm could have been 
taken as a yard, but if the standard had been lost, it would have been 
impossible to re-establish the measurement with any degree of certainty. 
As for wheat grains, they shrink in weight and size and are very seldom 
the same at maturity. 

Standard Yard. — It became apparent that standards which could 
be replaced at any time should be established. To do this, a commission 
was appointed, and as a result of a great deal of experimental work with 
a swinging pendulum, the unit of measure, known as the yard, was es- 
tablished. The standard yard is made of platinum with gold plugs 
sunk near each end. Across each plug is a fine line, drawn at right an- 
gles to the yard. The distance between these parallel lines, when the 
temperature of the platinum is at 62 degrees Fahrenheit, is the United 
States and the English Standard yard. As all metals, including plati- 
num, expand and contract in response to the changing temperature of 
the atmosphere, it is necessary to take the measurement at a positive 
degree of temperature. The original standard yard is preserved in 
England, and a number of exact reproductions are kept in the United 
States. 

Metric Standard. — The metric standard, of which the metre is the 
unit, is the international standard, and is on file in the Weights and 
Measures Building in Paris. The ratio of the English Standard to the 
Metric Standard is as 36 is to 39.37. 

Units. — Units are of two kinds — simple and derived. The yard is 
a simple unit ; the square yard a derived unit. The relation which a de- 
rived unit bears to the simple unit is called its dimension of the derived 
unit. 

Linear Measure.— ¥ot convenience and as a means of more accur- 
ate measuring, the English standard yard is divided into feet, inches, 
etc. The following is the linear table developed from the yard. 

12 inches ('0 1 foot (ft.) (') 

3 feet 1 yard (yd.) 

5| yards 1 rod (rd.) 

40 rods 1 furlong (fur.) 

8 furlongs 1 mile (mi.), or 

1760 yards 1 mile 



SHOP EQUIPMENT 



11 



Graduated Measuring Tools. — There are many tools in every day 
use which have graduations in inches stamped upon them. The steel 
square, rule, yard stick, try square, tape-line, etc., are the most common. 



'#Ul ... 2 3 4 5 . 



HAND TOOLS. 

Steel Squxure. — The steel square is used in measuring lumber and 
laying off lengths as illustrated in Fig. 20. See Steel Square, Chapter I, 
Part III. 

Try Square. — The try square is a 
contracted form of the square and is 
used extensively for testing and laying 
out work. In testing, the butt of the 
try-square is held against a surfaced 
side and the inside edge of the blade 
is brought to rest on the edge of the 
piece. If the blade touches ail the way 
across the block of wood, the piece is 
square (See Figs. 12 and 26.) 




Fig. 12. — ^Tey Square. 




Fig. 13. — Two Foot Folding Rule. 



Rule. — The rule is made of wood, 
metal, ivory, or celluloid, ranging 
from six inches to five feet in length. 
The ordinary two-foot folding rule 
(Fig. 13) has the inch divided into 
sixteenths on one side and into eighths 

on the other. It is a common practice to use the rule as a gauge for 
pencil lining as in Fig 21. The rule is held in one hand — ^the finger 
serving as a gauge or guide. A pencil held at the end of the rule is 
drawn along the surface of the board leaving a line parallel to the 
edge 

Marking Gauge. — A marking 
gauge is a wood working tool used 
only to lay out work. It is used to 
draw lines parallel to a given edge 
and works best with the grain of the 
wood. The parts of the marking 
gauge are the head, bar, point, and 
thumbscrew. The bar has graduations on one side which permit thte 
laying-off of definite measurements. To draw a line parallel to a given 
edge is not a simple operation. In untrained hands, the point of the 
gauge has a tendency to follow the grain of the wood, and the resultant 
line may not be true. To get the best results, with a little practice, hold 




Fig. 14. — Marking Gauge 



12 



SHOP WORK 




Fig. 15.— T-Bevel. 



the head — tipped at a slight angle — squarely against the edge of the 
board thus giving cutting action. Mark very lightly at first until the line 
is established. Then, if necessary, a heavier line may be made with a 
second stroke. (See Figs. 25 and 14.) 

T-Bevel. — It is necessary, in many classes of 
>\ construction, to work to given angles, or build up 
work to fit an angle. In either case, the tool most 
commonly used for this purpose is a T-Bevel. 
The bevel is similar in construction to a try- 
square, except that it has no graduations on the 
blade, and the blade is free so that it may be set 
at any angle and locked with a thumbscrew. These 

angles and pitches are generally taken from the steel square. (See Fig. 

22.) Bevels differ in size, form and material. Some are made entirely 

of metals; others of a combination of hard wood and metal. (See 

Fig. 15). 

Level. — The level is a tool con- 
sisting either of a steel or of a 
wooden frame with a level glass 
inset. Levels are made in many 
lengths, and are sometimes 
equipped with a level glass on a 
protractor scale for special work. In case there are two glass insets — 
one set at an angle of 90 degrees to the other — the tool is called a plumb 
and level. Levels are used for testing perpendicular and horizontal sur- 
faces during the process of building construction, in installing machin- 
ery, and in many other branches of engineering work. (See Figs. 23 
and 16). 

Wing Divider or Compass. — 
The wing divider is a tool used to 
divide lines, draw arcs, or trans- 
pose measurements. It is some- 
times called a compass. For laying 
Fig. 17. — Wing Divider. off a definite measurement with a 

pair of wing dividers, clamp one 
leg to the wing, approximately correct, and adjust it to the correct 
measurement by the spring and thumbscrew attachment. Fig. 24 clear- 
ly illustrates one method of establishing angles. These angles may be 
established on a block and transposed to the work by the use of the T- 
Bevel. (See Fig. 17). 




Fig. 1G. — Plumb and Level. 




SHOP EQUIPMENT 



13 





il.l.l.l.l'l.l.lllil.,. 


1 


2t 


IT 

H 



Fig. 20. — Laying Off Lengths. Fig. 21. — Pencil Lining. Fig. 22. — Determining 
Angles and Pitches. Fig. 23. — Plumbing. Fig. 24. — Establishing Angles. 

Fig. 25. — Establishing Lines. Fig. 26. — Testing With Try Square. 
3 



14 



SHOP WORK 



Fig. is. — Sloyd Knife. 




Fig. 19.— Awl. 




Fig. 27. — Typical Hand Saw 



Sloyd Knife. — A sloyd knife is 
an excellent tool for laying out, whit- 
tling, or any other light work. It is 
made of high carbon steel, properly 
tempered, and is handled. The knife 

is used in conjunction with a try-square in most grades of fine work. 

(See Fig. 18.) ' 

AiuL—The Awl, commonly called "Scratch 

Awl", is a tool used to make fine lines, point off 

measurements, and to start holes for small nails 

or screws ; it is especially adapted to enlarging 

holes in leather belting during the process of 

lacing. (See Fig. 19.) 

Saws. — Saws of different kinds 
occupy an important place among 
the tools used on hand-work of all 
kinds, and of these the hand saws 
are of the first importance. Hand 
saws are made from 14 to 28 inches 

in length of blade. For all work of small and moderate size, the 20 or 

22 inch saw shown in Fig. 27 is the most convenient. Hand saws are 

of two kinds — rip saws and crosscut saws. 

Ripsaw. — The ripsaw, as the name indicates, is for cutting with 
the grain, or lengthwise of the board to be sawed. For pine or other 
soft wood, a ripsaw having three teeth, or four points to the inch, may 
be used ; but for ordinary work, especially for hardwood, a ripsaw hav- 
ing six points, and a crosscut of nine points to the inch is recommended. 

Use of Handsaw. — It is not the intention to suggest any work for 
practice in the use of the handsaw, as the correct use will be acquired 
gradually while cutting out stock for different articles required later. 
In general, it is well to say to the beginner : Do not press on or force the 
saw to cut too rapidly. Hold the saw firmly in the hand with the first 
finger pressed against the side of the handle and run it lightly and free- 
ly in the kerf, or cut. Take time to see that the line is followed exactly, 
thus avoiding all wasteful and crooked edges on the work, which must 
afterward be planed off. While sawing, be careful to stand in a position 
to saw the edge square with the surface of the board. This position 
may be tested from time to time by setting a try-square on the board 
and against the side of the saw, as shown at A, Fig. 9. 



SHOP EQUIPMENT 



15 




Fig. 28. — Back Saw. 



; ° o ]t^/ 




--loO> 



Fig. 20. — Use or Back Saw. 



Backsaw. — The backsaw, 
shown in Fig. 28, is used on the 
bench, and is a bench saw, being 
used for light, fine work and 
for fitting and dove-tailing. The 
metal back is provided to stiffen 
the blade, thus making it possible to saw with exceptional accuracy. 
Backsaws are made in many sizes. A 10 or 12 inch backsaw is a con- 
venient size for general use. 

Use of Backsaw. — ^When using 
the backsaw, hold tv'ith one hand only. 
Never, under any circumstances, press 
on the saw with the other hand, but 
run the saw lightly on the wood. 
Should any trouble be found in start- 
ing the cut, first draw the saw back- 
ward against the finger of the left 
hand, which hand grips the block of 
wood being sawed. This steadies the 
saw and holds it firmly to the correct 
place for beginning the cut. Much 
trouble is sometimes experienced by 

the beginner in starting the cut, the tendency being to cut too deeply in- 
to the wood, especially if the saw is sharp. This makes it hard to begin 
the cut close to the line, and often splits off a corner from the wood. To 
avoid this trouble, hold the handle of the saw high as shown in Fig. 29, 
drawing the saw backward toward the operator with a pulling stroke, 

and steadying the blade of the sav/ 
with the first finger of the left hand. 
This will make a slight kerf, which 
can be increased with a light push- 
ing stroke. At each succeeding 
stroke, gradually lower the handle 
end of the saw until a horizontal 
position is gained. The sawing in 
all cases must be done with a light 
lifting stroke, without any forcing 
into the wood, using long steady 
strokes so as to use the entire length of the saw, and to bring all of the 
teeth into use. To use a back-saw in such a way as to follow closely 
to the dimension line, and to do exact and closely fitting work, requires 
from the beginner a considerable amount of careful practice. To all 



iTfj/nH+ffi^ 




Fig. 30. — Practice Exercise. 



16 



SHOP WORK 



who wish to acquire skill in the use of this important tool, we recom- 
mend the 'following exercise for practice. Take any block of wood, 
about two inches wide, about one and three-quarters inches thick, and 
about eight to ten inches long, and with a try-square and a sharp 
pointed knife, lay out lines on the front, upper and back sides of the 
block as partially shown in Fig. 30. The knife cuts must be at least 
one-sixteenth of an inch deep, and one-fourth to three-eights of an 
inch distant one from the other. Next, proceed to saw up the block 
in thin sections thus marked, sawing each time so that the saw kerf 
will be just outside of, and close to, the knife line as shown by the first 
partial cut at a in Fig. 30. Each saw-cut through the block should be 
true to each of the three lines. While the saw passes along one side 
(the outside) of the line, its teeth should not scratch the opposite side 
of the knife cut, but should leave the smooth, clean cut of the knife on 
the block, as shown at h, in Fig. 30. At the same time it should be so 
close as to leave no wood to be smoothed off with plane or chisel. 

Planes. — To a woodworker the 
plane is one of the most important 
tools. It is made either of cast 
iron or wood. Besides the regular 
bench planes, there are many other 
planes used for special work, such 

as the router, rabbet, dado, beading and matching, circular, carriage 
maker's, tongue and groove, core box, scraper plane, etc. (See Fig. 31) . 




Fig. 31. — Jack Plane. 




Fig. 32. — Jack Plane And Parts. 



lA Double Plane Iron. 

1 Single Plane Iron. 

2 Plane Iron C^p. 

3 Cap Screw. 

4 Lever Cap. 

o JLever Cap Screw. 



G Frog Complete. 

7 "Y" A(i.1usting Lever. 

S Adjusting Nut. 

9 Lateral Adjusting Lever. 

11 Plane Handle. 

12 Plane Knob. 



13 Handle Bolt and Nut. 

14 Knob P>olt and Nut. 

15 Piano Handle Screw. 
IG Plane Bottom. 

4G Frog Adjusting Screw. 



SHOP EQUIPMENT 



17 



Bench Planes. — The bench planes commonly found in school shops 
are: Smooth, jack, jointer and block. The smooth plane is used for 
finishing or smoothing off flat surfaces, where the uneven spots are of 
slight area. Its short length will permit it to locate these irregularities, 
leaving the work with a smooth surface when it is finished. The jack 
plane is used to true up edges of boards in the rough and prepare them 
for the jointer. The jointer plane is a finishing plane for large surfaces 
and is invariably used to true up the edges of boards so that they can 
be closely fitted or joined together; hence the name. (See Fig. 32.) 

Block Plane. — The block plane, 
which can easily be held in one hand, 
is used to plane the ends of boards. 
The cutter on the block plane rests 
on a seat, at an angle of 20 degrees, 
as against 45 degrees in the ordinary 
bench plane, and the cutter bevel is made on the upper instead of the 
lower side. All iron planes have adjustable throats which permit of 
the opening or closing of the mouth as coarse or fine work may require. 
Experience has proved that the proper bevel for grinding the cutter is 
at an angle of about 25 degrees. This angle should be observed when 
regrinding or rehoning the cutter. (See Fig. 33.) 

Cabinet Scraper. — A cabinet scraper may be in the form of a plane 
or merely a thin piece of steel, usually rectangular, with rounded cor- 
ners. It is used, as its name indicates, to scrape surfaces (as in Fig. 43) 
and is indispensible in working curly or twisted grain wood. (See Fig. 
34.) 




Fig. 33. — Block Plane. 




\ 



j^ 



Adjustable. 



Fig. 34. — Cabinet Sceapees. 
Concave-Convex. 



Convex. 



Fig. 35. — Burnishek. 



Burnisher. — A burnisher is a tool 
made of steel, variously shaped, with 
a hard, smooth, rounded end or sur- 
face, and is used to smooth, polish, 
and turn up edges. (See Fig. 35.) 



18 



SHOP WORK 




Deaw Knifk. 



Draw Knife. — The draw knife 
is used for roughing out forms rap- 
idly, as shown in Fig. 44. The 
handles are so placed that the 
workman draws the tool toward 
him and can thus regulate the cut- 
ting edge quite easily. Draw knives 

with folding handles protect the cutting edge and are best for tool kits. 

(See Fig. 36.) 

Spoke Shave. — The spoke shave is some- 
what similar to the draw knife. It is made 
either of wood or metal. Its blade, fastened 
in a frame, is adjusted with a set screw. 
The spoke shave is used for irregular work 
as shown in Fig. 45. There are a number 

of designs of spoke shaves, but their method of operation is identical. 
(See Fig. 37.) 

Cornering Tool. — ^A tool used 
to slightly bevel or round the cor- 
ners of porch rails, stair treads, 
etc., is a cornering tool. It is 
made of a strip of sheet steel. 

Fig. 3S.— Coeneeing Tool. (^^^ -^^^- ^°'> 




Fig. 37. — Spoke Shave. 




Squaring Stock. — In squaring stock, the following method should 
be observed. Fig. 39 represents a piece of stock to be squared. Use the 
smoothing plane over side A in the direction of the grain, and remove all 
rough places. Test with the square as in Fig. 40, or with any straight 
edge, to determine if the entire side A lies in the same plane. Then, using 
the jack plane, work side B to make it at right angles to side A. Test 
with a try square, as in Fig. 26, mark for width, as shown in Fig. 25, 
then plane side C in the same manner as you did side B, at right angles 
to side A. Test with try square as side B. Mark for thickness with 
marking gauge, as shown in Fig. 25, and, with a smoothing plane, work 
side D parallel to side A and at right angles to sides B and C. Using try 
square, measure for length and mark ends as shown in Fig. 41, then saw 
as shown by H, I, J, Fig. 11. When planing end grain, move the plane 
only part way across the end, stopping about one inch from the back 
edge as shown at arrow in Fig. 42. Reverse the plane and work back 
again, stopping about one inch from the first edge. This prevents the 
edges from splitting. 



SHOP EQUIPMENT 



19 





Fig. 39.— Squaring Stock. Fig. 40. — Testing With Square. Fig. 41. — Marking 

End. Fig. 43. — Use of Cabinet Scraper. Fig. 44. — Use of Draw Knife. 

Fig, 45, — Use of Spoks Shave, 



20 



SHOP WORK 



Fig. 46. — Typical Wood Chisel. 




Fig. 47. — Chisel Types. Upper, Tang ; 
Lower, Socket Firmer. 



Wood Chisel. — No tool has yet 
been devised to replace the wood 
chisel, and for years to come it will 
be used universally for gaining, 
mortising, beveling and for re- 
ducing wood generally. Wood and steel are the materials necessary for 
the construction of chisels. The parts of the wood chisel are the socket 
or tang and bolster, according to classification, blade, cutting edge and 
handle. 

Tang and Socket Firmer Chis- 
els. — Wood chisels are of two kinds 
— tang and socket firmer, the 
names being derived from the way 
the handles are attached. The tang 
chisel has the shank, bolster and 
material for the tang set down in dies, while the socket firmer has the 
Bocket or barrel made of sheet metal rolled over a form to the proper 
shape and welded to a "mood" which is a piece of steel properly set 
down for welding purposes. Some of the sockets of the chisels and 
gouges are made by the boss and punch method, a process which in- 
volves the use of machinery. Socket firmer chisels are designed for 
heavy work. Tang chisels are 
lighter, better balanced, and bet- 
ter designed for cabinet work. 
Most of the carving tools, many 
flat chisels, and many of the 
gouges are of this type. 

Chisel Handles. — The handles 
of chisels are made of wood, usual- 
ly maple or hickory, highly pol- 
ished, and very commonly capped with leather to prevent the shattering 

of the wood by the blows of the 
mallet. In case the handle is for 
a tang chisel, there is a brass or 

V • J f^^^^MiiBii^a»i''^^^i iron ferrule slipped on the end. 

This goes over the tang to pre- 
vent it from splitting the wood. 

Chisel Blades. — The blades of 
chisels may be of any width or 
length. Some have the edges of 

Fig. 49. — Special Chisel Types. Gouge, one side beveled. Other blades are 

Carving Tool, Butt Chisel, worked over forms and are known 

Corner Chisel. 




Fig. 48.- — Chisel Handles. Upper, Tang; 
Lower, Socket Firmer. 





SHOP EQUIPMENT 21 

as gouges, corner chisels, turning chisels, carving tools, etc. Like 
many other tools, chisels are ground, tempered, polished and handled 
before they are ready for the market. (See Fig. 49.) 

Sharpening Tools. — In sharpening any tool, care should be taken 
to keep it inj the proper position, to retain the original bevel, and to 
keep from drawing the temper. The two first mentioned operations 
are very important, yet, even if they are done correctly, and the temper 
is drawn, the tool is worthless. Keep the tool as cool as possible while 
grinding, for, if it becomes hot, and the steel turns blue, the temper 
is drawn, and the tool is too soft to do satisfactory work. The sharpen- 
ing of the wood chisel furnishes no exception to these rules. In addition, 
attention should be paid to the angles made by the various edges, each 
with another. The ordinary wood chisel should be ground with the 
cutting edge at 90 degrees to its long axis. A bevel should be made on 
one side only, and the plane of this bevel should make an included an- 
gle with the plane of the reverse side, of 15 to 80 degrees, the variation 
depending upon the class of work for which the chisel will be used. 
More chisels are ruined by over grinding than in any other way. Never 
grind one unless it is out of true, or the bevel has become rounded by 
whetting, and then only enough to make it true. Put the keen cutting 
edge on by the use of the oil stone and the leather strop. Never grind 
a tool on a dry stone. 

Halving Joints. — Fig. 50 illustrates the method used with a chisel 
in reducing stock for halving joints. The work is carefully laid out, and 
the saw kerfs, A,A, are made. Saw kerfs prevent splitting. The chisel 
B is then started — about one-fourth of the depth of the saw kerfs— and 
upward — at a slight angle. This cut is to test the direction of the grain 
of the wood. This cut should be carried down on one side and returned 
cuts made from the back side. The edge of the chisel may be used for 
testing the trueness of the surface. 

Concave Surfaces. — Fig. 51 shows the method commonly used to 
cut out concave surface on light short stock. Saw kerfs are made about 
an inch apart and the chisel is used in removing the stock. These cuts 
With the chisel — in a straight grained piece — should be made in the di- 
rection of the grain, as from A to C and from B to C. 

End Beveling. — Fig. 52 shows the method used in cutting a bevel 
across the end of a piece. If the best results are desired, the tool must 
have a keen edge and be given a shearing position. 

Beveling. — Fig. 53 illustrates the practice of laying out and making 
a bevel. The ends are first cut as at A, and the stock removed on the 



22 



SHOP WORK 




Fig. 50. — Halving Joints. FIg. 51. — Cutting Concave Surface. Fig. 52. — Cutting 

End Bevel. Fig. 53.^ — Cutting Edge Bevel. Fig. 54. — Cutting Mortise. 

Fig. 55. — Testing Mortise. Fig. 56. — Cutting Circular Piece. 



SHOP EQUIPMENT 



23 



edge with a chisel. Where the bevel runs the length of the edge, a jack 
plane may be used to advantage. 

Mortises. — Fig. 54 illustrates the manner in which a mortise is 
cut with a chisel. The cut is started at A with a chisel which is a little 
narrower than the mortise, and cuts are made from side to side, each 
cut a little deeper than the one before, until the end is reached. The 
end cuts should be light, square, and the corners cut clean. The return 
cut from A to C may be made in the same manner. This will leave 
the mortise packed with fine chips about half way through the piece. 
The piece may then be turned over and the same method practised on 
the other side until all cuts are through, after which the chips may be 
forced out and the walls trued. This chisel as shown in Fig. 55 may be 
used to test the trueness of the walls. 

Circular Pieces. — Occasionally it is necessary to cut out a circular 
piece of wood. This may be done by careful use of the chisel as illus- 
trated in Fig. 56. As far as possible, the chisel cuts should be made 
with the grain of the wood, shearing cuts, as shown in Fig. 52, being 
made across the end grain. In case the grain runs in the direction of the 
arrow, it will be necessary to make the cuts from A to B, from A to D, 
from C to B and from C to D. 

Mallets. — The mallet is a tool 
used for driving cutting tools 
which have wooden handles. Vari- 
ous materials are used in the con- 
struction of mallets, chief of which 
are wood, lignum-vitae, raw-hide, a 
combination of wood and metal, 
and rubber. Rubber mallets are 
used in setting up cabinet work. 
Mallets are manufactured in many 
forms, but the best form for ordinary work is the one with the faces cut 
radial. (See Fig. 57.) 

Haimners. — Hammers are de- 
signed to meet all classes of work 
such as driving nails, pounding 
metal and working in stone; they 
are most commonly found in forms 
suitable for the carpenter, black- 
smith, machinist, mason and tin- 
ner. The materials used in con- 
structing hammers are wood and fig. 5S.-Claw Hammers, ball Pein. 

steel. The stock of the hammer is maydole. 




Fig. 57. — Eadial Face Mallet. 





24 SHOP WORK 

of high grade crucible steel, forged into the proper shape, ground, 
tempered, and finally polished. The handles are put in afterwards. 

Hammer handles should be straight 
grained and tough, and should be 
Fig. 59.— HAMMEE HANDLE. finished in such a way that they 

will not become sticky when held in a 
moist hand. In order to secure a straight grained piece of young, 
heavy hickory, trees are selected and cut into lengths suitable for turn- 
ing into handles. These pieces are split — not sawed — into blanks and 
permitted to air dry, or season, for about six months before they are 
turned into proper shape. Air drying leaves them tough, while kiln 
drying makes the wood brittle. A common method of finishing handles 
is to hold them on sanding, filling, and polishing belts, each doing its 
work in turn. 

Driving Nails. — It will be found that nails driven into wood at a 
slight angle — See Fig. 64 — have a greater resisting capacity than those 
driven straight in. This is true because it is necessary either to bend 
the nails or to split the pieces held together in this fashion to separate 
them. In driving a nail, hold it at a slight angle, tap it lightly with the 
hammer to start it, follow with several sharp blows squarely on the 
head, thus forcing it into the material, until the top of the head becomes 
flush with the surface of the wood. Be careful not to mar the wood. Fig. 
63 indicates the position of the hammer to the face of the wood to pre- 
vent scarring. Fig. 65 shows a method of toe-nailing one piece to an- 
other. Nails that are to be set should never be driven home with a ham- 
mer, but the head should be left partly above the surface of the wood; 
the nail then may be set with a nail set and hammer. 

Nail Sets. — The nail set is 
made of tool steel and has its point 
cup shape to prevent it from slip- 
ping off of the head of the nail and Fig. 60.— nail Set. 
scarring the wood. 

Pulling Nails. — To pull a nail, place the claws of the hammer under 
the head of the nail and then place a block of wood under the eye of the 
hammer — ^to prevent the scarring of the material as well as to increase 
the leverage; pull the handle back over the block; if the nail is not 
clinched or rusted, it can be easily removed. 

Carpenter's Pincers. — Carpen- 
ter's pincers, which are used in cut- 
ting and pulling nails, should be 
1^61.— Carpenter's PinceksT^ made of good steel. The arrange- 




SHOP EQUIPMENT 25 

merit of the jaws makes it possible to pull short broken nails with but 
little effort. 

Screw Drivers. — A screw driver is 
a tool used for turning screws into ma- 
terial. It is designed especially for this 
Fig. 62.— Screw Dkivek. work, having a blade, A, Fig. 66, formed 

so that it will fit the slot B of the screw 
E, a shank, and a handle. The sides of the end of the blade should be 
parallel in order to prevent the scarring of the head of the screw. (See 
Fig. 67) . Screw drivers with shanks from three to eighteen inches long 
are very common. Screw driver handles are made of wood, leather- 
washers, wood fibre and metal, all of which are designed to give the best 
possible grip 'to the hand. A very convenient form is that with the 
shank bent at right angles and a blade on each end. 

Driving Scretvs. — To secure the greatest efficiency, screws must be 
driven home with care. Screws may be driven into soft wood with an 
ordinary screw-driver, but in tough or twisted grain or hard wood, it is 
best to bore a hole to receive the screw. In fastening two boards to- 
gether with screws (See Fig. 66), bore a hole in the first board a little 
larger than the gauge of the screw D ; bore a hole in the second piece the 
size of the short diameter of the threads of the screw, F. Countersink C 
in the first board to receive the head and slip the point of the screw 
through the first board and start it into the second. By revolving the 
screw E to the right — clock wise — the screw will pull the two boards 
together at that point. Care should be taken not to strip the threads 
in the wood, especially in the end grain, A little soap or grease on the 
point of the screw will cause it to enter the wood more easily. Some 
screws are designed to be driven with a hammer, but most screws in 
common use should never be more than well started with a hammer. 
To do more, one incurs the danger of closing the slot of a round head 
screw and the possibility of breaking off half of or the whole head of a 
flat head screw. 

Vises. — To facilitate the better handling of wood during the pro- 
cess of construction, vises, handscrews and clamps are used. 
Vises are made of both wood and metal and are constructed 
in many forms. Probably the oldest and most used form is the wooden 
jaw vise, the one that has one jaw built to the bench. Rapid acting metal 
vises are very common and save much time in changing the stock in the 
vise. They are usually bolted to the bench and may have the jaws lined 
with wood to prevent the scarring of the piece to be held. 



26 



SHOP WORK 




63 



^ 



1/ ^ c 



xn. 



'U.-J. 



\^-i\ 



1^ 



/y 



66 





Jcreiv-- driver 



Slot 



H 



Screw 



U 



B'iG. 63. — Hammer Position. Fig. 64.— Method of. Nailing. Fig. 65. — Toe-Nailing. 
Fig. 66. — Driving Screws. Fig. 67. — Adjustment of Screw and Driver. 



SHOP EQUIPMENT 



27 



■nUMta- 

Fig. 68. — Hand Sckews. 



Hand Screws. — Hand Screws 
are used to hold pieces of wood to- 
gether while laying out work, glu- 
ing, chiseling, etc. The jaws are 
made of wood, but the better and 
the more convenient hand screws 
have the spindles made of metal, 
and so arranged that the jaws may be set at an angle for special work. 
In all cases where possible, the jaws should be worked in a parallel posi- 
tion, so as to distribute and gain the most pressure. (See Figs. 70 and 
68.) 

Clamps. — ^Like hand screws, clamps are used because of their ca- 
pacity to hold wood together. The better clamps are made of steel and 
range in size from the small C-clamp to the carpenter's door and trestle 
clamp. These larger clamps are used in the gluing of table tops, and 
in clamping together large frames. The long clamps have a tail stop 





Fig. 69. — Clamps. C-Clamp and Bar Clamp. 

which slides the length of the steel bar. This makes the clamp quick 
acting. Most of the clamps are worked with a screw, but some of 
them secure their pressure by the use of an eccentric. Fig. 72 illustrates 
a method commonly used in clamping boards together with a carpenter's 
clamp. It is necessary to face the jaws A with the blocks B to prevent 
bruising the pieces C to be held. 

C-Clamps. — The C-clamp, or screw clamp, is used most in holding 
work together temporarily while it is being laid out. It is also common- 
ly used toiiold work to the bench. (See Fig. 71.) 

Improvised Clamp. — An improvised clamp is illustrated in Fig. 73 
by which the pressure is secured by wedges. The boards to be glued, 
C and D, are backed against the strips B. Wedges A, A are driven up 
tight thus forcing the two boards tightly together. If the surface to be 
glued is wide, it will be necessary to put weights on the boards C to 
prevent their buckling. 



28 



SHOP WORK 




FlG. 70. — Use of Hand Screws. Fig. 71.— Use of 0-Clamp. Fig. 72. — Use of Bar 
Clamp. Fig. 73. — Improvised Clamp. 



SHOP EQUIPMENT 29 

Use of Braces and Bits. — Braces and bits are thoroughly discussed 
in Chapters IV and V in Part III. However, a few illustrations here 
may not be amiss. 

Locating Centers. — Fig. 74 shows the method of locating or laying 
out centers for bored work. The measurements for holes are always 
given to the center, unless otherwise specified, and usually from two di- 
rections. In case of a series of holes the measurements are given from 
center to center. 

Securing Bored Stock. — Work to be bored should be held securely 
in a position most convenient to the workman, so as not to slip or bend 
and break the bit. This will materially assist in boring the hole true. 
Fig. 75 illustrates one method of shifting the cap of the brace so the 
bit is square to the place of the piece being bored. A try-square may be 
placed beside the bit to insure accuracy. 

Boring Through. — Extreme care should be taken with finished 
pieces to prevent splitting on the back side by boring through. To pre- 
vent this, stop boring when the spur (See A in Fig. 76) has come 
through. Return the cut from the back side. Another method is to 
clamp a piece of scrap material securely behind the _ board and bore 
through into the scrap material. This will leave a clean cut hole. 

Depth Gauge. — Fig. 77 illustrates the use of the depth gauge. This 
serves as a stop since it prevents the bit from feeding in farther than 
the distance to which it was adjusted. This gauge is used in boring 
deep mortises. The cuts should be overlapping. (See Fig. 78.) The 
overlapping cuts make the walls easy to true "with a chisel. 

Ratchet. — It is often necessary to bore a hole in a corner or close to 
an obstacle where it is impossible to get a full swing with the brace. 
This is done by the use of the ratchet. Fig. 79 illustrates a corner in 
which the cranked-handle moves through a quadrant of a circle. 

Tool Sharpening. — In sharpening tools, care must be taken to re^ 
tain the grind or bevel. If the original bevel has not been retained, the 
tool must be put on the grindstone as in Fig. 80. A shows an adjust- 
able tool rest on which the tool is held while being ground. The stone 
must revolve in the direction of the arrow and against the cutting edge 
of the tool. It is not the function of the grindstone to sharpen tools, 
but to remove metal so the desired bevel may be given. Fig. 81 shows a 
tool, the bevel of which has not been retained, and which must be put on 
the grindstone and ground to the dotted line. 



30 



SHOP WORK 



4 , 



t- 



_ i_ 

_1 



15- 



■Bgrsgr: 




75 



\^4'-\ 



74 




Fig, 74. — Locating Centers. Fig. 75. — Starting Bit. Fig. 76. — Boring Through. 

Fig. 77. — Use of Depth Gauge. Fig. 78. — Boring Mortise. 

Fig. 79. — Use of Ratchet Brace. 



SHOP EQUIPMENT 



31 



Chisel Sharpening.- — Fig. 82 shows how the chisel must be held 
on the oil stone to put on the cutting edge. Bear on the chisel when 
pushing it in the direction of the arrow. Fig. 83 shows how to lay the 
chisel on the oil stone when removing the wire edge that may have re- 
sulted from the operation in Fig. 80. Care must be taken that the oil 
stone retains its flat sides. However, if the surfaces become irregular, 
place it on the side of the grindstone and grind until the sides are flat. 




Fig. 80. — ^Adjustment of Tool to Grindstone. Fig. 81. — Impkoper Bevel. Fig. 82. — 
Adjustment of Tool to Oil Stone. Fig. 83. — Removing Wire Edge. Fig. 84. — 
Rounded Plane Iron Edges. Fig. 85. — Plane Iron and Cap Attached. Fig. 86. — 
Sharpening Outside Beveled Gouge. Fig. 87. — Sharpening Inside Beveled Gouge. 
Fig. 88. — Sharpening Knife. Fig. 89. — Sharpening Cabinet Scraper. 

Plane Iron Sharpening. — The bevel or grind on a plane iron is from 
3/16" to Y', depending upon the thickness of the tool and the character 
of the wood for which it is intended. The sharpening of the plane iron 
is the same as the chisel. Test the cutting edge for squareness vdth a 
try square. Fig. 84 shows the edges slightly rounded. This avoids 
ridges which would otherwise result from a square corner. Fig 85 
shows the plane iron cap fastened to the plane iron. How near the cap 
is to be set to the cutting edge is determined by the character of the 
work. 



32 SHOP WORK 

Gouge Sharpening. — Fig. 86 shows how a gouge beveled on the out- 
side may be sharpened with a shp stone, and Fig. 87 shows how a gouge 
beveled on the inside may be sharpened with a slip stone. 

Knife Sharpening. — To sharpen a knife, give it a circular motion — 
both clockwise and anti-clockwise — as shown in dotted circle. Fig. 88. 

Cabinet Scraper Sharpening. — A, in Fig, 89, shows how to sharpen 
a cabinet scraper. Run the file horizontally along the edge of the scf aper 
until the edge forms a right angle to the sides. If, during this process, 
a wire edge has formed, remove it on the oil stone. After this operation, 
run the burnisher across the edge of the scraper, forming a convex sur- 
face — a burr on each side of the edge, as shown in B and C of Fig. 89. 
The angle at which the scraper is used, is determined by the angle of the 
burr. (See Fig. 43.) 



CHAPTER III 
DEVELOPMENT OF A PROJECT 

(A typical line of procedure to follow in the construction of any article.) 

Plan^ and Specifications. — In making any project, the first and most 
important consideration is a clear understanding of what the piece is 
really to be. This should be followed by a knowledge of the purpose it 
is to serve, and lastly one should know definitely what parts are neces- 
sary for the construction of the whole. All of this information is, or 
should be, included in the plans and specifications. 

Construction of Rack. — In this chapter, the article proposed for 
development and construction is a rack. The project was chosen neither 
for its intrinsic value when completed nor for its utility but because its 
construction involves the use of so many tools and the sequence of the 
operations is so clearly marked. The development of this project is a 
typical line of procedure. In this case the name itself indicates that it is 
to be a complete article, assembled and finished; perhaps to match 
some piece of furniture. The purpose which it is to serve is implied in 
the name. The plan (Fig. 90) shows the parts needed in its con- 
struction. 

Paints. — This rack is composed of six parts : 

A — back (1) 

B — support (1) 
C — arms (2) 
D — crossrail (1) 
' E — dowel pin (1) 

These parts are carefully worked out and assembled so that the 
frame C D E swings on E as the bearing. F is a ^" hole bored at a point 
equidistant from the sides of the frame and one inch from the top so 
that the rack may be hung on a nail or hook. 

Laying Out the Back. — The back should be of clear wood and of 
the same kind as the piece of furniture the project is designed to match. 
Dress this part to measurements ^x5|^x7 inches as given on .the plans. 
The rule, saw, try-square, and plane will be all the tools necessary for 
this part of the work. The board is now ready for laying out the 

33 



34 



SHOP WORK 




Fig. 90. — Working Drawing of a Rack. 



DEVELOPMENT OF A PROJECT 



S5 



O— 




design. (See Fig. 91.) The 
first step in making a layout 
for a design is drawing the 
center lines; from these cen- 
ter lines all centers are placed, 
as for centers of arcs, holes, 
etc. Draw both center lines, 
as XX and 00, the former 
running vertical, the latter 
horizontal. From line 00 
measure down one and three- 
eights inches and draw a line 
parallel with line 00 ; on this 
line, from the intersection of 
line XX, each side of XX, 
measure off If inches. At 
these two points your large 
arcs will be swung. From 
line 00 measure up 2'' and 
draw a line parallel with line 
00. On this line, each side 
of XX, measure off 1^^\ 
From these points the two small upper arcs are swung. On line 
XX measure up from intersection of line 00 If. Draw a light line 
parallel with line 00. On this line, each side of line XX, measure off 
If. From these points draw lines tangent to large arcs. With com- 
pass point set at 6 inches, with one point on line XX produced, scribe 
the upper arc, being careful that this arc is tangent to the two small 
arcs. After scribing the four arcs with a light line, connect the arcs 
with tangent lines as shown in Fig. 91. The bevel, J, f inch, should be 
laid out by the use of a fine pointed pencil and the hand, a finger of 
which serves as a guide or gauge. Making gauge lines will leave a 
scratch after the bevel is cut. 
Since the above provides for all 
the work to be laid out on this part 
of the project, the shaping may 
begin. 

Shaping the Back. — The holes 
F and G in Fig. 91 may be bored 
with an ordinary auger bit, but 
extreme care should be taken not 



Fig. 91. — The Back. 



C^ 



^ 



•f • 1 



Fig. 92. — Counteesinking eor Screw. 



36 



SHOP WORK 









\ 





Fig. 93. — Laying Out the Support. 



to split the back surface when the bit goes through. It is better prac- 
tice to stop boring when the spur of the bit shows through, and to re- 
turn the boring from the opposite side. Fig. 92 shows the use of the 
countersink P in reaming out the hole G. This forms a seat for the head 
of the screw which holds the support and back together. The 
beveled edges J in Fig. 91 may be cut with a smoothing plane, 
making the strokes parallel with the grain of the wood. The bevel edges 
across the ends may also be cut with the plane if the plane is turned so 
the plane iron will have a shearing cut with the grain of the piece. 

The Support. — Fig. 93 illus- 
trates the manner in which the 
support B (Fig. 90) is laid out 
after it has been squared to the 
proper measurements. The inter- 
section of the two lines at R in Fig. 
93 indicates the center of the hole 
in which the dowel E (Fig. 90) is 
to be inserted. The dotted lines on 
the end show the picket point with which the support is embellished, and 
are shown in this cut to indicate that all of the work cannot be laid out 
at first as some of the piece is cut away exposing new surfaces. The 
work must be laid out after these cuts are made. 

Fig. 94 shows clearly the meth- 
od used in cutting a picket point 
which is formed by four triangular 
bevel surfaces meeting in a com- 
mon point. The cuts are made 
with a saw, usually a back saw, as 
illustrated by S, removing the slab 
T. On the newly-exposed bevel 
surfaces, lines are drawn from the 
corners to the center of the ridge. 
These cuts are then made with a 
saw and the four triangular bevel 
surfaces are smoothed by the care- 
ful use of the plane. In cutting the 
bevel surfaces to form the neck on 
the support, the saw kerfs U are 

made 5/16 inch deep on all four sides. The material is removed by the 
use of the chisel W, but extreme care should be taken to keep the surfaces 
of the bevels perfectly flat. The other end of the support rests on the 




Fig. 94. — Forming the Support. 



DEVELOPMENT OF A PROJECT 



37 



back piece just completed. On this end, draw diagonal lines from cor- 
ner to corner. The intersection of these lines locates the center, at 
which a hole, equal to the short diameter of the screw thread, should be 
bored deep enough to receive the screw. 

The Arms. — A careful study of the plan will reveal that the 
length of the arms (C in Fig. 90) is not given, but that the run and rise 
is. The run is 2| inches and the rise is 6 inches, plus | inch, or 6f 
inches. It is best to make a cardboard pattern with the use of the steel 
square. Lay the square on the cardboard, and at the point 6| inches on 
the blade of the square, square out a line | inch, and on the tongue at 

2f inches make a mark. Scribe a 



miu^ 



f^rr-r^/ 



Fig. 95. — Laying Ol't the Arms. 



line on the inside edge of the square 
forming the plumb and level cuts. 
The curves may be developed free 
hand and the pattern may be cut out 
and used for both pieces. This as- 
sures one of having the two arms similar. Brad two pieces of the right 
width and thickness together and tack the pattern on the face side as 
illustrated in Fig. 95. Saw kerfs X may be made at irregular intervals 
and the surplus stock removed with a chisel or draw knife, but a better 
way is by the use of a band or jig saw. (See B. P. 400.) All cuts of the 
chisel should be in the direction of the 
arrows. The saw kerfs prevent split- 
ting. 

The round corners may be 
formed with a chisel as shown in 
Fig. 96. The edge of the tool must 
have a shearing motion. 

The centers for holes which re- 
seive the dowels and cross rails 
should be carefully laid out and bored. 

Cross Rail and DoweL- 




FlG. 9t). FOEMING THE AeMS. 




The method used in making the cross rail 
(D Fig. 90) and the dowel, (E Fig. 
90) are exactly identical and since 
the are the same size, | inch, they 
may be made in one piece. First, 
square up a piece of the necessary 
length to f inch. On each end, form 
an octagon, and run pencil lines 

on the stock connecting the octagons. (See Fig. 97.) These corners 

may be removed by the use of a plane. 



Fig. 97.-rLAYiNG Out the Rail and 
Dowel. 



38 



SHOP WORK 



A device used to hold the stock 
while the, corners are planed off is 
called a chute board. Two boards, 
Y-Y (Fig. 98) having their inner 
edges beveled at 45 degrees, are nailed 
together, and a stop or pin is set in at 
one end of the groove thus made. The 
chute board is clamped in the vise 
and the piece is laid in the groove 
with one end against the stop. Now 
plane off the edges by changing posi- 
tion of piece in chute board. Next 
drive the stock through a dowel plate, 
which, as a rule, is a rectangular 
piece of low carbon steel with holes 
drilled in it as shown in Fig. 99. This illustration shows the method of 
driving the stock through. Care should be taken to hit the stock square 
with a mallet, and, if the stock is long, it should be held about the mid- 
dle to prevent buckling. If the stock is well worked down, it will come 




Fig. 98. — Use of a Chute Boakd. 




Fig. 99. — Use of a Dowel Plate. 



out clean, smooth and round. Improvised plates may be made by bor- 
ing holes in hard wood. The piece may now be cut into suitable lengths 
for the cross rail and the dowel, or D and E in Fig. 90. 

Assembling. — All of the pieces should be gone over carefully with 
sand paper to make them smooth and clean. Always sand paper with 



DEVELOPMENT OF A PROJECT 39 

the grain. . The back A may be screwed to the support B, but the point 
of contact should be coated with glue. Care should be taken to see that 
the sides of the support and back are parallel before the screw is finally 
driven home. The dowel E should be made to rotate in the hole in the 
end of the support so that the frame formed by the arms, the cross rail 
and the dowel, will swing. This frame should be glued together in posi- 
tion, but no glue should find its way into the hole in the support. The 
frame should be free from wind. The work should set for twenty-four 
hours to permit the glue to dry. Then remove all glue streaks, bruises 
or scars with sand paper. The rack is now ready for finishing. 

Finishing.— A very good finish for this rack is one coat of shellac 
(white) and two coats of wax. The shellac should be brushed on and 
given plenty of time to dry thoroughly. Then it should be worked down 
with fine, or worn-out, sandpaper until the surface is smooth. Over this 
add a coat of wax. This may be put on with a rag. When it sets, that 
is when it has become dull and its solvent is partially or totally evapo- 
rated, it may be polished by rubbing with a soft rag. Another coat of 
wax may be added in the same manner. 



CHAPTER IV 
machinery; 

Woodworking Machinery. — For the rapid shaping and reproduc- 
tion of similar forms, woodworking machinery is used. Machines de- 
signed for practically all classes of work are on the market, and new 
machines, as well as improvements on the old, are developed readily. 
Probably the most common machines used in industrial schools are the 

following : 

Saw bench with ripsaw and cross-cut saw; 

Band saw ; 

Surf acer ; 

Hand planer and jointer; 

Speed lathes; 

Trimmer; 

Tool grinder. 

These machines vary in form and size and in their equipment with 
special parts best suited for diversified kinds of work. 

Universal Saw Bench. — The rip 
saw is indispensable in a modern 
school shop. The accompanying cut 
(Fig. 100) shows a modern saw 
bench which can be fitted up with 
attachments for many classes of 
special work. The base is cast in one 
piece, making the machine rigid. 
The table, which is provided with a 
tilting mechanism, and is operated 
by hand, and which has a stationary 
and rolling section, is also made of 
metal. This machine is provided with a yoke, having two arbors, on 
which the saws are mounted and revolved by a hand wheel, engaging 
worm and gear. The latter is protected by a dust-proof casing. The 
saw can be fitted with either direct motor or countershaft drive. The 
equipment consists of a rip saw, a cross-cut saw, a universal ripping 
fence, a miter cut-off gauge, a universal miter gauge, and a clearance 
block. 

40 




Fig. 100. — Univeesal Saw Bench. 



MACHINERY 



41 




Fio. lUl. — Band Saw. 

Frame ; 
Guide post ; 
Wheels ; 
Table ; 



Band Smu. — The band saw is a piece of 
woodworking machinery, consisting of a 
steel band, from whence the name is de- 
rived, which runs over two wheels in the 
same manner as a belt. It is used in pat- 
tern shops, saw mills, planing mills, and in 
wood novelty shops. It is used extensively 
for sawing curves, ripping, and sawing ir- 
regular work in general. With the band 
saw blade in motion, the wood is fed to it. 
The operator slides the wood over a table, 
which can be tilted to any angle, thus mak- 
ing it easy to hold and guide the piece of 
wood. The important parts which make up 
a band saw are the following : 

Saw tension; 
Safety guards ; 
Special equipment for re- 
sawing, etc. 



Band saw blades are made in all widths, and in lengths suitable for the 
capacity of the machine. By capacity is meant the working clearance 
under the guide and between the blade and column. (See Fig. 101.) 

Surfacer. — The surfacer is a 
machine which is used extensively 
by cabinet makers, pattern makers, 
and manufacturers of pianos, or- 
gans, vehicles, cars, doors, sashes, 
boats, blinds, and wood novelties of 
all kinds, for planing or surfacing 
stock. It does, on a large scale, the 
same kind of work which may be 
done with smooth and jack planes. 
It is a great time saver. The frame 
of the surfacer is made of cored sec- 
tion sides, and heavy ribbed girts, 
machine jointed and bolted. The 
bed is raised and lowered by a hand 

wheel. The surfacer can be fitted with either direct motor or counter- 
shaft drive. The rough stock is fed through the machine by means of 
four rollers. The cylindrical head, which makes 5,000 revolutions per 
minute, cuts from beneath the surface, thus retaining the keen cutting 




Fig. 102. — Surfacer. 



42 



SHOP WORK 



edge longer. Experience has proved that the knives should be ground 

at an angle of 42 degrees in order to obtain the best results. (See 

Fig. 102.) 

Hand Planer and Jointer. — The 

hand planer and jointer is used in 
all woodworking shops for dressing 
and joining wood. The principal 
parts of the machine are the fol- 
lowing : 




Bed; 


Rabbeting at- 


Tables; 


tachment ; 


Cylinder ; 


Fence ; 


Cylinder bear- 


Pulley. 


ings; 





Fig. 103.-HAND joiNTEK. Tj^e YiQdidi, or cylinder, with two 

knives inset, should make about 
5,000 revolutions per minute in or- 
der to develop the maximum cutting efficiency. The cutting blades, 
like those of the surfacer, cut from underneath the face of the wood, 
thus making it possible to work over finished material. The knives 
should be shielded as much of the time as possible. For all joint work, 
the line of the take-off table should be tangent to the circle described by 
the revolving knives. (See Fig. 103.) 

Lathes. — Lathes are used extensively in school and pattern making 
shops in doing cylindrical and spherical work. They are either motor 




Fig. 104. — Lathe. 



or belt driven, and the drive must be so arranged as to give variable 
speeds. The parts of the lathe are the following : 

Bed; Tail stock, in which is placed the 

Head, in which is placed the live dead center ; 

center; Face plates; Tool rests. 



MACHINERY 



43 



A pattern maker's lathe is generally provided with a tool carriage, 
hand fed, which has a longitudinal and cross feed. All cylindrical and 
spherical work, with their variations, can be done on the lathe. The 
swing of the lathe is determined by the distance between the live center 
and the top of the bed, this being one-half the size of the stock worked. 
The distance between the centers determines the length of stock that 
can be worked. (See Fig. 104.) 

Trimmer. — The wood trimmer is 
a tool used in all pattern, cabinet and 
novelty shops for trimming the ends 
of small pieces of wood. The cutting 
is done by knives. These knives are 
forced through the wood which is 
held against a stop at the correct an- 
gle. The principal parts of the wood 
trimmer are the following: 




Knife carriage; 
Gauges ; 
Bed; 
Standard ; 



Driving mechan- 
ism; 
Trial gauges; 
Column. 



Fig. 105. — Tkimmee. 



The knives have a shearing motion 
which leaves a clean unbroken cut. 
The points of the knives should al- 
ways be shielded, and only one per- 
son at a time should operate the wood trimmer. (See Fig. 105.) 

Oilstone Tool Edge Grinder. — A 
tool grinder is indispensable in any 
shop, no matter whether natural or 
artificial stones are used. However, 
artificial stones must be used with the 
knife grinding attachment. Grinders 
with two wheels, one of medium and 
one of fine grit, are most desirable. 
The principal parts of the edge tool 
grinder are the following: 



Base ; 
Oil pan; 
Oil reservoir; 
Wheels ; 
Wheel arbor; 



Knife grinding at- 
tachment ; 

Driving mechan- 
ism; 

Special equipment. 




Fig. lOG. — Tool Grinder. 



44 



SHOP WORK 




FlG 107. — Monkey Wrench. 



New wheels should be thoroughly soaked with kerosene before using 
and a little added from time to time. They readily absorb the oil and 
will appear to be dry when not running, but the centrifugal force will 
bring the oil to the face of the wheel when the proper speed is reached. 
(See Fig. 106.) 

Machine Tools. — In the upkeep of machinery, it is necessary to 
have tools for making adjustments, in order that the maximum effi- 
ciency of the machine may be developed and maintained. Wrenches, 
pliers, chisels, large screw drivers, scrapers and oilers are the tools 
most frequently used. 

Wrenches. — Many machines have wrenches made for special work; 

but it will be found that the ordi- 
nary monkey wrench may be used 
to advantage on most woodworking 
machinery. This wrench is made 
in many styles and sizes and is used 
in turning nuts and lag screws. (See Fig. 107.) 

Oiler. — The oiler, more commonly called the oil can, 
is indispensable in properly lubricating the moving 
parts of machinery. It is made in many sizes and some 
have long spouts, designed for oiling locomotives, etc. 
(See Fig. 108.) 

Pliers. — Pliers 
are used in cutting, 
twisting and hand- 
ling wire or small 
nails. The jaws 
are made in many forms for special classes of work. Probably the most 
common and best adapted design for work in general is the pair with 
flat jaws. (See Fig. 109.) 

Snips. — Snips are used by tin- 
ners, sheet metal workers, copper- 
smiths, etc., to cut metal rapidly 
and easily. They are made in many 
sizes and designs and must be eas- 
FiG. 110.— Snips. i\y operated to do efficient work. 

(See Fig. 110.) 

Safe Guards. — Many machines are so designed as to protect the 
workman as much as possible; in fact many states require that the 
machinery be properly shielded. But even these safe guards will not 





Fig. 109. — Pliers. 



Fig. 108.— Oil Can. 




MACHINERY 45 

totally eliminate all of the accidents in industrial and manufacturing 
plants. Carelessness, working too rapidly, and taking big risks are, in 
a way, responsible for three-fourths of the accidents. The following 
suggestions should be carefully observed. 

All gearing should be properly encased; 

An old style set screws should be replaced with hollow set screws; 

Hand jointers should be equipped with cylindrical heads and care- 
fully shielded; 

The band saw should be screened; 

Table saws should be run in wooden shields; 

Cleated floors, to prevent slipping, should be built in front of saws 
and planers; 

Plenty of help should be employed in overhauling high piles of 
lumber or moving heavy pieces. 

All these things have been found most essential and effective in 
preventing serious accidents. 

REMEMBER ! 
SAFETY FIRST, 



CHAPTER V 

ACCIDENTS AND THEIR TREATMENT 

Accidental Injuries. — Wounds, fractures, scalds, burns and sprains 
are the most common accidents likely to call for treatment in a school 
shop. 

Wounds. — ^Wounds are divided into five classes: (1) Incised 
wounds, which consist of simple divisions of the fibers made by cutting 
instruments; (2) lacerated wounds, in which the edges of the wound are 
torn, usually irregularly; (3) contused wounds, those in which the 
edges are bruised (contused wounds are usually lacerated) ; (4) punc- 
tured wounds, inflicted with the point of a weapon ; they are generally 
narrow and deep and are usually followed by much swelling and in- 
flammation; (5) poisoned wounds, caused by the bites of animals, the 
stings of insects, etc. Wounds are dangerous, according to their char- 
acter, i. e., whether incised, lacerated, poisoned or otherwise ; the extent 
of the soft parts which they involve; the place where they are located 
in the body; the age, habits, surroundings and state of health of the 
patient ; and the treatment they receive. The attendant consequences of 
a wound are pain, hemorrhage, displacement, loss of function and shock. 
The loss of function may be temporary or permanent and may manifest 
itself in stiffness, paralysis, deformities or death. As a precaution, 
scratches, bruises and light cuts should receive prompt and proper at- 
tention and more serious wounds should be carefully treated and dressed. 
In treating wounds, it is essential first of all to remove any accumula- 
tion of blood, dirt or other foreign matter by washing. When the wound 
is thoroughly cleansed place some absorbent cotton over the bleeding 
portion. The cotton may be moistened with an antiseptic such as di- 
oxygen. Finally the wound should be carefully bandaged. If the wound 
is serious such as the severing of an artery, the bleeding may be con- 
trolled by a compress between the wound and the heart. In the latter 
event, a good physician should be called immediately. 

Fractures. — Bones may be broken by force resulting from various 
causes. Fractures are either complete, simple, comminuted, compound, 
or impacted. The symptoms of fractures are pain, swelling, the crack 
felt or heard by the patient when the fracture occurs, abnormal mobil- 
ity, displacement, crepitation, and loss of function and injury to the 
neighboring soft parts. The repair of fractured bones should be at- 

46 



ACCIDENTS AND THEIR TREATMENT 47 

tempted only by skilled surgeons. The treatment of the fracture, of 
course, consists, first, in restoring the broken ends to their natural posi- 
tion ; and, second, bandaging and splinting to keep them in position. 

Burns and Scalds. — Burns are produced by dry heat and scalds by 
hot liquids, but the lesions of both are essentially identical. The effects 
of burns or scalds vary with the degree of the injuries. If the injury 
to the patient is not severe, nothing but local treatment is required ; if 
severe, all clothing near the injured part should be removed at once. 
It is imperative that all dirt, shreds of clothing, etc., be removed from 
the burned surface. If the burn is deep, it has been found satisfactory 
to immerse the burned part or the patient, as the case requires, in a 
warm bath. A solution, consisting of equal parts of lime water and lin- 
seed oil, applied to the burned surface, will give very satisfactory 
results. 

Sprains. — A sprain results from the wrenching of a joint, causing 
some of the ligaments (the bands of tissue that unite the bones) to be 
torn or severely stretched. In many cases, the bones are also injured. 
In treating sprains, measures should be taken to prevent inflammation 
by restoring healthy action. A most valuable means of reducing the 
swelling and pain resulting from sprains, consists in wrapping the joint 
with cloths saturated with water as hot as can be comfortably endured. 
These fomentations should be continued for three or four hours. As 
soon as the pain and swelling have somewhat subsided, an elastic band- 
age should be placed around the joint. When the acute symptoms have 
disappeared, absorption should be promoted by systematic rubbing and 
the application of stimulating liniments. 



PART II 
SHOP WORK 



CHAPTER I 

JOINERY 

Joints. — A joint, in wood craft, is the place where two pieces of 
timber are joined or united together. The joining may be edge-to-edge, 
as in Fig. Ill ; 




Fig. 111. — EdgetTO-Edge Joint. 

it may be in the direction of the length, as in Fig. 112 ; 



^^^=2 



■ Fig. 112. — End-to-End Joint. 
it may be at right angles, as in Fig. 113; 




Fig. 113. — ^Right Angle Joint. 
or it may be at an angle, other than a right angle, as in Fig. 114. 




Fig. 114. — ^Angle Joint. 



Joint Types. — For the purpose of increasing the strength, effec- 
tiveness and rigidity of joints, adhesive and fastening devices, such as 

51 



52 SHOP WORK 

glue, nails, screws, bolts, dowels, etc., are used. Before these modern 
fastening devices came into use, dowels, mortises and wedges, which are 
found in old wooden structures, especially in the hulls of old vessels 
which have been floating a half century or more, were used exclusively. 
The fundamentals of joint construction, with their manifold variations, 
which are found in modern joints, were evolved by necessity many years 
ago, and those types of joints and joint construction which have stood 
the test of centuries are now recognized by artisans the world over as 
standard and as suitable for all kinds of construction work, whether 
cabinet making, carpentry, shipbuilding or pattern making. As joints 
are designed for utility, they should be so constructed as to weaken the 
uniting pieces as little as possible; to distribute the load uniformly; to 
fit accurately without winding strain ; and the supporting timber should 
be directly under, and perpendicular to, the load sustained. A careful 
study of the construction of joints and their application to practical 
problems will soon teach the beginner the proper proportions of joints, 
as well as the selection of stock for joint construction. In the descrip- 
tion of the types of joints which follows, no attempt has been made to 
name and describe all joints, but all the fundamentals of joint construc- 
tion are given and minor details may be varied to satisfy individual 
tastes or needs. 

Classification of Joints. — In this treatise, joints are grouped, accord- 
ing to their use in practical construction work, under three divisions, 
namely, box joints, framing joints and surface joints. 

BOX JOINTS. 

Box Joints. — Box joints, as the name implies, are used in the con- 
struction of boxes and other similar articles such as cases, cabinets, 
hoppers, bins and filing cases. They are used mainly, however, in con- 
structing boxes to be used in storing and transporting merchandise. In 
their general construction, box joints have return sides at right angles 
to each other. The method of forming the joint is largely determined 
by the use and strain to which it is to be put in commercial use. 

Plain Butt Joints. — In common usage, a plain butt joint is formed 
by the end of one piece meeting or butting against the side of another 
at right angles, without overlapping. This is the joint commonly used 
by wholesale grocery houses in constructing boxes and cases. (See 
B. P. 401.) 

Butt Joints, Blocked and Glued. — A butt joint blocked and glued is 
made like a plain butt joint, with the addition of an angle block which 
may be square as in Fig. 115, and which is glued in the corner to add 
firmness. The joint may be glued or nailed, or both. This joint is used 



JOINERY 



53 



in cabinet work, furniture making and stair building. For wholesale 
dry goods and hardware houses, this joint is reinforced by cleats at- 
tached to the outer edges to withstand the rough handling in transporta- 
tion. (See Fig. 116 and B. P. 402.) 





Fig. 117. — Hopper Joint. 




Fig. 115. — Butt Joint (.Blocked and Fig. 116. — Butt Joint (Cleated). 

Glued). 

Hopper Butt Joints.— A hop- 
per butt joint is formed by two 
pieces which do not meet each 
other at right angles on account 
of the slant of the sides. It may 
be cut at a miter, as in Fig. 117. 
Hoppers are used for corn grind- 
ers, for grain drills, bins, chutes, 
elevators and flouring mills. (See 
B. P. 403.) 

Rabbet Joints. — A rabbet joint is one in which the side of one 
piece is grooved to receive the end tenon of the other. This method of 
joining adds glue surface and therefore makes the joint stronger. This 
joint is used in box and drawer construction. It presents a neat, fin- 
ished appearance. (See B. P. 404.) 

Dovetail Dado Joints. — A 
dovetail dado joint has one of the 
pieces grooved on the side and the 
other piece has a tenon to fit the 
groove. This groove must have 
one or both sides cut at an angle 
and the tenon cut to match, as in 
Fig. 118. This joint prevents 
spreading. It is used in making 

china closets, book cases, in partitions for drawers and in filing cases. 
(See B. P. 405.) 




Fig. lis. — Dovetail Dado Joint. 



54 



SHOP WORK 




Fig. 119. — Plain Dado Joint. 



Plain Dado Joints. — A plain 
dado joint is used for shelf fasten- 
ing, for the bottom of drawer con- 
struction and for water-tight 
boxes, tanks and ice boxes. (See 
Fig. 119.) 

Multiple Dovetail Joints. — ^A 
multiple dovetail joint (through) is 
one in which the projections and in- 
dentations on the ends of the two 
pieces alternate and fit one another. This joint is used in constructing 
tool chests, fine boxes for jewelry cases, etc. (See B. P. 406.) 

Half Blind Dovetail Joints. — A half blind dovetail joint is one in 
which the projections of one piece do not show through the face side 
of the other. This joint is used to fasten the sides of drawers to the 
front. The blind dovetail shows no projections on either side, being on 
the order of a mitered joint. This style of joint is used' in making fancy 
and highly finished boxes. (See B. P. 407.) 

hedged Miter Joints. — A ledged miter joint is one with rabbeting 
and mitering combined, the miter being on the outer edge to give the 
joint a finished effect. The large glue surface makes it a strong and 
durable joint. It is used for costly boxes. (See B. P. 408.) 

Miter and Butt Joints. — A miter and butt joint is similar to the 
ledged miter joint, only more simple. It is used in joining pieces of 
different widths or thicknesses. (See B. P. 409.) 

FRAMING JOINTS. 

Framing Joints. — Framing joints are those applied in frame-skele- 
ton-construction. They may be used in light framing such as desks, 
tables and taborets, as well, as in heavy framing, such as house and barn 
construction, trestle work, shipbuilding,^ etc. These joints are formed 
by the timbers meeting each other at any angle desired or in the direc- 
tion of the length. 

Butt Joints. — A butt joint, un- [ 7 

der this division of joinery, is 
formed with heavier stock than 
box joints. It is fastened by nails 
set at an angle — toenailing — and 
by dowels, as in Fig. 120. This 
joint is used in carpentry for fast- 
ening the stud to the plate. (See 
B. P. 410.) 



Fig. 120. — Butt Joint (Doweled). 



JOINERY 55 

Draw-Bolt Joints. — A draw-bolt joint is a butt joint with a hole 
bored through the one piece into the end of the other and a bolt inserted 
to receive a nut which is put in from the side. It is a very strong joint 
and is used in bench making, wooden frames for machines, and farm 
implements. (See B. P. 411.) 

. Cross-Lap Joints. — A cross-lap joint is one in which both pieces are 
notched so that one fits into the other. The surfaces may or may not 
be flush. This mode of joining prevents side lashing. It is used in cabi- 
net work and carpentry where timbers cross each other. (See B. P. 
412.) 

Beveled Halving Joints. — A beveled halving joint is the same as a 
cross-lap joint except that the joining is made at the ends and the ad- 
joining cheeks are beveled to match. The pieces are held in place by 
nails. It is used in carpentry. (See B. P. 413.) 

Lap-Dovetail Joints. — A lap-dovetail joint has a dovetail notch cut 
into one timber and on the other a projection — a tenon — to match. This 
mode of fastening prevents spreading. It is used in rig construction 
and in bridge and shipbuilding. (See B. P. 414.) 

Cogged Joints. — A cogged joint is one with only parts of the notch 
cut on the lower piece, leaving a portion uncut. The upper piece is cut 
to fit the uncut portion of the lower. The joint prevents side lashing, 
is strong and-is used in heavy framing. (See B. P. 415.) 

Mortised and Tenoned Joints. — Joints of the mortised-and-tenoned 
type are of the same general construction. The tenon is made by cut- 
ting slabs from the sides at the end of the timber, leaving cheeks and 
shoulders. The cheeks are the sides of the tenon and the shoulders are 
the parts abutting against the mortised piece. The shoulders serve as 
depth gauges. The mortise is the hole cut to receive the tenon. In 
general construction, the rails are tenoned and the stiles are mortised 
to hide the grain of the wood. 

Blind Mortise and Tenon Joints. — A blind mortise-and-tenon joint 
does not permit the tenon to project through the mortise. The cheeks 
may be cut on two, three or four sides. This joint is used in fastening 
studdings to plates. It is used extensively in furniture construction. 
(See B. P. 416.) 

Doweled Mortise and Tenon Joints. — A doweled mortise-and-tenon 
joint (through) is one that has the mortise cut through one piece and 
the tenon cut equal to or more than the depth of the mortised piece. A 
pin or dowel is driven into a hole bored through both mortise and tenon 



56 SHOP WORK 

(when in position) to keep the tenon from pulling out. The tenon may 
have two or four cheek cuts. This joint is used in constructing wooden 
machine frames, bridges, wagons and window sash. (See B. P. 417.) 

Keyed Mortise and Tenon Joints. — A keyed mortise-and-tenon joint 
is constructed the same as a doweled mortise and tenon joint except that 
the tenon projects far enough through the mortise to admit the insertion 
of a tapering key which draws the mortised piece firmly against the 
shoulder of the tenon. This joint is used in bench building and in fur- 
niture of the knock-down type. (See B. P. 418.) 

Open Mortise and Tenon Joints. — An open mortise-and-tenon joint 
is one with the mortise cut through the side and end of the mortised 
piece. It may be made single or in series. When used singly, it is 
adapted for window screens, frames for panels, etc. Articles such as 
machine-made boxes are commonly fastened with this joint, used in 
series. (See B. P. 419.) 

Mortise and Tenon Joints with Relish. — A mortise-and-tenon joint 
with relish is one in which a part of the tenon is cut shorter than the 
rest. This device adds glue surface and therefore strengthens the joint. 
This joint is commonly used where a rail is joined to a leg, as in table 
construction. (See B. P. 420.) 

Trussed Mortise and Tenon Joints. — ^A trussed mortise-and-tenon 
joint is one in which both ends of the cheeks have shoulders. It is used 
in cabinet work on tea tables, taborets, etc., and for ornamentation. 
(See B. P. 421.) 

Wedged Mortise and Tenon Joints. — A wedged mortise-and-tenon 
joint is one with the mortise cut wider on the outer edge than on the 
inner. Saw kerfs are cut into the end of the tenon to admit wedges, 
which, when driven home, will spread the tenon and fill the mortise. It 
is used in carpentry, also for fastening handles in axes, hammers, 
sledges, etc. (See B. P. 422.) 

Fox-Tail Tenon Joints. — A fox-tail tenon joint is constructed the 
same as a wedged mortise-and-tenon joint, except that the tenon does 
not come through, but is blinded. It is used where the mortised piece 
is already a fixture and the tenoned piece must fit close to the mortised 
ane. It is also used in strong door construction. (See B. P. 423.) 

Double Mortise and Tenon Joints. — A double mortise-and-tenon 
joint is one which has two tenons and two mortises, side by side. It is 
used in constructing door frames. (See B. P. 424.) 



JOINERY 57 

Single Dovetail Joints. — A single dovetail joint (through) is simi- 
lar in construction to a single open mortise-and-tenon joint. However, 
the sides of the mortise-and-tenon are cut at an angle. This angle or 
bevel, cut on the sides, keeps the joint from pulling apart in one direc- 
tion. It is used in heavy framing. Machine-made boxes for packing 
small merchandise are constructed by using this joint in series. (See 
B. P. 425.) 

Thrust Joints. — A thrust joint is formed by two beams meeting at 
an oblique angle. It is held in place by spikes, bolts or iron strappings. 
This joint is used in heavy timber construction to distribute the load and 
give stiffness to the frame. (See B. P. 426.) 

Housed Brace Joints. — A housed brace joint is made by cutting a 
mortise into the timber at the desired angle to receive the brace. The 
housing of the brace prevents it from falling out if the timbers shrink 
for want of thorough seasoning. Its use is the same as a thrust joint. 
(See B. P. 427.) 

Oblique Mortise and Tenon Joints. — An oblique mortise-and-tenon 
joint differs from the general mortise-and-tenon type only in that the 
timbers join each other at an oblique angle. This joint is commonly 
used to fasten braces in heavy frames. The tenon and mortise pre- 
vent the brace from working out of position sidewise, and the shoulders 
on the mortised and tenoned piece prevent the brace from slipping down 
when the load is applied. (See. B. P. 428.) 

Bridle Joints. — A bridle joint has a notch cut into one timber at an 
angle, leaving a tongue or cog in the notch, and the brace timber is cut 
to fit into the notched timber. The tongue prevents the brace from 
falling out sidewise, and the shoulder prevents the brace from slipping 
out when the load is applied. It is used in heavy framing. (See B. 
P. 429.) 

Scarf Joints. — A scarf joint is formed where two timbers lap each 
other in the direction of the grain, with flush surfaces. This joint is 
so constructed as to resist tension and compression. A key is inserted 
to h"old the timbers firmly together. The joint may be bolted or strapped 
with iron. It is used in heavy construction and shipbuilding. (See 
B. P. 430.) 

Splice Joints. — A splice joint is one constructed similarly to a 
scarf joint, and its functions are the same. (See B. P. 431.) 

Bird's Mouth Joints. — A bird's mouth joint has a notch cut at an 
angle to fit a piece on which it rests. This joint is used in rafter cutting 
and is determined by the pitch of the roof. (B. P. 432.) 



58 SHOP WORK 

SURFACE JOINTS. 

Surface Joints. — Surface joints are used to unite pieces lying in the 
same plane to form large surfaces or frames. These surfaces may be 
circular or flat; paneled or lapped as in siding. In most cases these 
joints are formed by edge-to-edge contact, and in other cases the miter 
contact is used. 

Plain Miter Joints. — A plain miter joint is formed by the junction 
of the beveled ends of the two pieces which are secured by glue or nails. 
It is used in picture framing, etc. (See B. P. 433.) 

Splined Miter Joints.— A splined miter joint is the same as a plain 
miter with the exception that it has a slit cut across the end of the miter 
and a spline inserted. This prevents ripping and buckling, and there- 
fore, increases the efficiency of the joint. It is used in heavy framing. 
(See B. P. 434.) 

Stretcher Joints. — A stretcher joint is constructed the same as a 
slip joint. One or both sides may be mitered. B. P. 436 shows both 
sides mitered. They are used in making frames for stretching painters' 
canvas and lace curtains. (See B. P. 435 and 436.) 

Edge-to-Edge Joints. — Edge-to-edge joints are used when large or 
wide surfaces are desired. The mode of fastening these joints is deter- 
mined by their use. 

A. A plain butt joint is used in the construction of pieces where 
there is little strain, as the tops of taborets, tea tables and articles of 
similar nature. 

B. A rabbeted joint overlaps the edge» with the side remaining 
flush. It is used in sub-floors and boxing of houses and granaries. 

C. A spline joint is grooved on the adjoining sides with a spline 
inserted to prevent lateral rising. It is used in making water tanks, 
heavy tops and heavy floors. 

D. A tongue-and-groove joint has one edge grooved to admit the 
tongue of the other edge. It is used in flooring, ceiling, partitions, etc. 

E. A doweled joint has holes bored in the uniting pieces at inter- 
vals along the edges to admit the dowels or pins. If the boards are not 
well seasoned this, device prevents cupping at the joint. This method of 
joining is used in gluing table tops. 

F. A dovetail edge joint is similar to the tongue-and-groove joint, 
only the tongue-and-groove is dovetailed. It is used in building tops 
for benches, doors and patterns for cores. 



JOINERY 



59 



G. A matched and beaded joint is a tongue-and-grooved joint with 
the beads. The beads serve the purpose of breaking wide plain surfaces. 
This joint is used for wainscoting and ceihng. 

H. A lap siding joint is one with the edges overlapping to keep 
the water from getting into the cracks. It is used in putting lap siding 
on buildings, roofing for cheap sheds and for shingling. (See B. P. 437.) 



RESISTING POWER OF WOODS. 

Stress. — Stress is the force exerted in any direction or manner be- 
tween contiguous bodies, and taking specific names according to its 
direction or mode of action. 

a. Tensional Stress. — Stresses in wood construction may be ap- 
plied in three diflferent ways : Tensional stress which pulls in the direc- 
tion of the grain of the wood, as in a wagon tongue, coupling pole, lift- 
ing rod on a windmill, rails, etc. (See Fig. 121.) 



.^ 




Fig. 121. — Dikectton of Tensional, Stress. 

b. Compressional Stress. — Compressional stress, which is pressure 
in the direction of the grain — reducing in length — as in pillars, studs, 
posts, supports", etc. (See Fig. 122.) 



Fig. 122. — Direction of Compkessionai, Stress. 

c. Transverse Stress. — Transverse stress which is applied across 
the grain and has a tendency to bend, as in joists, flooring, etc. (See 
Fig. 123.) 




Fig. 123. — Direction of Transverse Stress. 



60 



SHOP WORK 



Computation of Stress. — Stresses are generally computed at so 
many pounds per square inch. The following table gives the average 
safe load or allowable working unit stresses, in pounds, per square inch 
of some of the common woods. 



AVERAGE SAFE ALLOWABLE WORKING UNIT STRESSES IN POUNDS PER 

SQUARE INCH. 

Recommended by the Committee on Strength of Bridge and Trestle Tim- 
bers, Association of Railway Superintendents of 
Bridges and Buildings. 





Tension 


Compression 


Transverse 


Kind of 
Timber 


With 
Grain 


Across 
Grain 


With Grain 


Across 
Grain 


Extreme 
Fiber Stress 


End 
Bearing 


Columns 

under 
15 Diams. 


Factor of Safety 


Ten 


Ten 


Five 


Five 


Four 


Six 


White Pine 

Yellow Pine (S) 

Oregon Fir 


700 

1200 

1200 

900 

800 

600 

600 

800 

900 

700 

1000 


50 
60 

~50 

50 

2(5o 


1100 
1600 
1600 
1200 
1200 

1200 
1200 

1400 


700 

1000 

1200 

800 

800 

800 

800 

800 

1000 

800 

900 


200 
350 
300 
250 
200 
150 
200 
200 
250 
200 
500 


700 
1200 ^ 
1100 


Yello^A^ Pine (N) 

Spruce 


1000 
700 


Hemlock 


600 


Cypress 


800 


Cedar 


800 


Chestnut 


800' 


Redwood (Cal.) 

White Oak 


750 
1000 







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CHAPTER 11 

CABINET MAKING AS APPLIED IN FURNITURE CON- 
STRUCTION. 



Furniture. — Any movable equipment for the house, either useful or 
ornamental, may properly be called, furniture. Hence an ordinary 
kitchen stool is a piece of furniture just as much as a handsomely fin- 
ished Chippendale table. The purpose the piece of furniture is intended 
to serve and the features needed to portray some historical period in fur- 
niture making, determine the design which is characterized and exem- 
plified by the lines, trimmings, workmanship and finish. Often pieces of 
furniture are so similar in construction that it is a common practice to 
combine the features of two or more in a single article. Such combina- 
tions economize floor space and place the price of the one article within 
the reach of those who could not afford to buy the two or more if con- 




E^G. 124. — Parts of a Piece of Fuenituee. 
A, Top; B, Rail; C, Panel; D, Leg or Sup£>ort. 

structed separately. The combination davenport and bed affords the 
most common example, while combinations of chairs and tables, chairs 
and sewing cabinets and music racks and bookcases are not at all un- 
common. All pieces of furniture have legs, rails, panels and tops, al- 
though these parts are often modified in shape and proportion so as to 

61 



62 SHOP WORK 

produce the various designs. The rails and legs form the frame of any 
piece of cabinet work, while the addition of a top and panels give it 
character. In the creation of pleasing patterns, care should be taken 
to see that the same idea of design is carried out in the entire piece, i. e., 
if the leg is curved in its length, or tapers, the rails, top and panels 
should be' so fashioned as to harmonize with it. (See Fig, 124.) 

Legs. — A suitable foundation or support is the first thing to be con- 
sidered in the construction of any piece of furniture. Since the sup- 
porting timbers in cabinet work are the legs, they form the real founda- 
tion and should be given first attention. The legs of a piece of cabinet 
work may be of any length or diameter suitable for the article to be con- 
structed. They may be of such length as to serve as a stile for a panel, 
as in the case of a chair, roll top desk, etc. Frequently they are modi- 
fied to serve as a combination of pretty designs in foot stools. 

Panel Leg. — A, in Fig. 125, illustrates the simplest kind of support. 
It is used for the ends of book-racks, stools, taborets and cellarets, and 
is a combination of a leg and a panel. Many pretty designs are cut in 
or built upon it, and sometimes a mould is used in forming a rectangle 
on the outside to give a more striking effect. The relief at the bottom 
adds stability in that it localizes the weight over rough floors and has a 
suggestion of the ancient Egyptian feature — ^the claw or foot. This fea- 
ture may be made even more pronounced by gluing on blocks and shap- 
ing them with a hand turning saw. These ends are built into the frame 
by the use of screws and nails or by the use of keyed mortise and tenon 
joints. 

Mission Style Leg. — B, in Fig. 125, is characteristic of the Mission 
Style. Its very appearance speaks stability. The stock for the leg is 
either solid, built up or veneered. If not properly seasoned, the solid 
stock is liable to cause trouble after the project is put together If of 
hardwood, it makes a very cumbersome structure. The built-up piece is 
better than the solid because well seasoned pieces and prettier grain may 
be selected. The veneered leg is the best, as it is lighter in weight, is 
easier to work, and the veneer will show the same grain on all four sides. 
A light bevel should be cut around the bottom of these legs to prevent 
splitting in moving them around. Legs of this type are usually built 
into the frame by the use of the mortise and tenon joint. 

Modified Mission Style Leg. — The leg illustrated by C, in Fig, 125, 
is a modified form of B. It is usually of solid stock and has a portion 
tapered. Square brass or bronze ferrules at the bottom give a very 
pleasing effect. 



CABINET MAKING 



63 



French Leg. — D, in Fig. 125, is commonly known as the French 
Leg, and should be built only in such patterns as have circular or ellip- 
tical tops or seats, and swelled or curved rails. Patterns using the 
French leg are usually void of panel effects. These legs are of many 
proportions and lengths. Carving found its way into these patterns, 
since the top swell and foot offered an exceptional opportunity for the 
wood carver. Glue, screws, dowel pins and light mortises and tenons 
are used in building up the frame of a structure including legs of this 
type. 



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Fig. 125. — Types of Legs. 



Turned and Fluted Leg. — E, in Fig. 125, is a turned and fluted leg. 
It is used in all kinds of furniture construction, including such forms 
as tables, stools, chairs, pedestals, etc. Modifications of this form of leg 
are found in the dining room pedestal-table in which the leg is split and 
spreads when additional leaves are added to the top. Glue, screws, 
dowel pins and light mortise and tenon joints are used in framing this 
into a piece of furniture. 

Back Legs. — F, in Fig. 125, is the back leg of a chair, settee, etc. 
The upper part serves as a stile for the back panel, the lower part as a 
support for the seat. It is made fiat or turned and is built into the frame 
by the use of dowels, round tenons, screws, etc. This curved back effect 
is typical of those designs introduced in the latter part of the seventeenth 
century for the purpose of rest and comfort. 



Rails. — Those parts of articles 
of furniture which connect support- 
ing timbers and stiles and which, as 
a rule, run in a horizontal plane, 
are called rails. There are front, 



D 



Fig. 126. — Common Rail. 



64 



SHOP WORK 




Fig. 127.— ^Anchoring the Rail. 




Fig. 128. — Trimming the Rail. 

Curved Rails. — Curved rails 
are used for circular or elliptical 
tops, for tables or fronts, for side- 
boards, dressers, wash stands with 
curved fronts, and for backs of 
chairs. They are attached to the 
legs in the same manner as the 
straight rails. Swell or French 
legs usually predominate if curved 
rails are used in the frames of the 
structures. (See Fig. 129.) 



back, top and bottom rails, all of 
which are to be found in many 
modified forms. The most com- 
mon type of rails is that shown in 
Fig. 126. This rail is either turned 
to fit the mortise in the legs, or 
doweled, or put on by the use of 
screws and draw bolts. It is a com- 
mon practice to stiffen the joint by 
the addition of angle blocks as in 
Fig. 127. 

Straight Rails. — Straight rails 
match square legs and will go well 
with turned or turned and fluted 
legs if a mould is cut on the Ipwer 
outside edge of the rails. Openings 
are often cut in the rails to receive 
draws, sliding brackets, extension 
leaves, etc. (See Fig. 128.) 




Fig. 129. — Curved Rail (Back op 
Chair). 



Fig. 130. — Turned Rail. 



Turned Rails. — Turned rails or spindles are used in the construc- 
tion of stools, chairs, cribs, lad- 
ders, etc. If beads are turned on 
the rungs they should match those 
on the legs. Round tenons are 
turned on these rails and the rails 
are built up or assembled by in- 
serting the ends into bored holes. (See Fig. 130.) 

Chair Arms and Rockers. — Rails take many and widely different 
forms, but perhaps an arm of a chair and a rocker afford examples of 



CABINET MAKING 



65 




the greatest dissimilarity. Classi- 
fication of rails must be made ac- 
cording- to use, and as arms and 
rockers connect supporting tim- 
bers, they are truly rails. (See 
Figs. 131 and 132.) 




Fig. 131. — Arm of a Chair. 



Fig. 132. — Chair Rocker. 




Fig. 133. — Stretcher or Foot Rail. 



Shelving. — Stationary shelving in a magazine stand, if anchored 
to the legs, may be called rails; but as a general rule it is classified as 
multiple tops, especially if the frame is stiffened by the use of brackets. 

Foot Boards. — A very com- 
mon form of bottom rail or 
stretcher, used especially in table 
building, is the foot board. As a 
rule, it runs between two cross 
rails, and is often anchored with 
keyed joints, as in Fig. 138. Other 
modifications of this type of foot 
board are such forms as the sub- 
top, used for magazines, papers, 
etc., which is built in place by 
notching a seat in the leg and then 
anchoring it either with a dowel 
or screw. 

PANELS AND PANEL EFFECTS. 

Panels and Paneling. — Paneling 
is the art of applying useful deco- 
rations in cabinet work by screen- 
ing objects. Panels are found in 
doors, wainscoting, stairs, desks 
and many other classes of cabinet 
work. Panels are of many classes, 
including opaque and transparent 

materials, and even just sufficient material to produce a panel effect. 

Panels are produced in three ways: By rabbeting, by moulding and 

by batting. 




Fig. 134. — Panel. 



66 



SHOP WORK 



HV 



Fig. 135. — Rabbeted Panel 



Rabbeting. — By rabbeting is 
meant that the rails and stiles, in 
case of a door, are grooved enough to 
receive the edges of the panel. The 
panel itself may be thick, and cut 
down on the edge to fit the rabbet, as 
in Fig. 135, forming a raised panel, 
or it may be perfectly flat and made 
of cross laminated veneer, such as is 
used in office desks, 
first-class construction work are set in as 



Drawer bottoms, in 
panels of this class. 

Panel Effects. — Panel effects (Fig, 136) are produced by the meth- 
od illustrated in Fig. 135. The slats are nailed together, then cut from 
one pattern and slipped into place before the end is finally put together. 
The grooves between the slats are filled with scrap pieces made to match 
the rails. 




Fig. 136. — Panel Effects. 



Moulding. — Moulding is a method of anchoring or holding the 
panel in place, and is a cheaper means of construction than rabbeting; 
moreover, it serves a purpose that rabbeting will not permit when 
once the frame is finished. That is, the panel may be removed 



CABINET MAKING 



67 



M 



Fig. 137. — Panel Anchored With 
Mouldings. 




Fig. 139. — Drawer Fronts. 



any time by taking- out the mould- 
ing on one side. Moulding is a 
common way of putting glass in 
windows and doors and in build- 
ing up the sides of bookcases. 
(See Fig. 137.) 

Batting. — Batting is the meth- 
od of producing a panel effect over 
flat surfaces by stripping boards 
with flat bats as illustrated in Fig. 
138. This is the method used in 
paneling stairways, in constructing 
built-in seats, and in producing 
pleasing designs on unbroken sur- 
faces. (See Fig. 138.) 

Drawer Fronts. — D rawer 
fronts produce panel effects and 
are therefore classified as panels. 
Some are made to appear as raised 
panels and others are perfectly flat, 
except for the drawer pulls, which 
are made either of wood or metal 
and serve the purpose indicated by 
their name. Fig. 139 shows a col- 
lection of drawer pulls suitable for 
most styles of furniture. The sides 
and back should be dadoed to re- 
ceive the bottom. The drawer 
should slide on dadoed or built-up 
cross-rails as guides, the flange on 
the front of the drawer serving as a 
stop. If the drawer front is flush 
with the face of the rail, glue 
blocks or stops are placed on the 
rails at the end of the drawer to 
prevent the drawer from sliding in 
too far. 



TOPS AND MODIFIED FORMS. 

Tops. — Tops, in their many forms, afford convenient places for 
writing, sitting, laying books, etc. They are made in shapes to har- 



68 



SHOP WORK 



monize with the rest of the pieces of furniture, and, as a rule, are the 
most prominent. They are constructed of selected wood, the grain of 
which is often matched to form beautiful figures. Solid stock, built 
edge-to-edge, is the general plan of construction followed, but, in the 
more expensive tables and other articles of furniture, the tops are lami- 
nated and finished with a selected veneer both on the top and edges. 
Laminated pieces are lighter than solid stock and have but little tend- 
ency to warp. Great care should be exercised in the selection of the 
stock for a top. If the best results are desired, the stock should be 
thoroughly dry and of a similar grain, i. e., of a uniform texture and 
similar color. It will be necessary, in many cases, to rip off the sapwood 
in order to produce a uniform color, and to use narrow stock in quar- 




FiG. 140. — Gluing, Showing Use of Clkats, Hand Screws and Clamps. 



tered wood in order to produce a uniform flake. (See Fig. 140.) The 
building of a top should be carefully done. The edges, A in Fig. 140, 
must be perfectly straight and square in order to afford a perfect joint. 
This joint is usually put together with dowels, B in Fig. 140^ the dpw 



CABINET MAKING 



69 



els serving as guides to keep the boards in alignment. Glue should be 
brushed on the dowels and edges much in the same fashion as a coat- 
of paint is brushed on boards. The boards E to be glued may be pulled 
together lightly at first, then the cross-cleats D may be added and 
clamped in place with the hand-screws C which prevent the boards from 
buckling. Then pressure may be applied by the use of carpenter's 
clamps, F, equally distributed along the edge, but blocks should face the 
iron jaws in order to prevent scarring or bruising the edges. Gluing of 
large flat pieces is usually done on saw horses, or trestles, G. 

Another method of building 
up solid tops is to joint carefully 
the edges and plow a wedge 
dovetail joint. This was for- 
merly done by machinery, but 
tools which will do this rapidly 
and accurately by hand are on 
the market. The dovetail tenon 
is driven home. The parts form their own clamps while drying. Cleats 
to hold them straight should be placed at each end. All glue work should 
set for twenty-four hours before the clamps are removed. 




Fig. 141. — Wedge Dovetail Joint. 



Cleating. — It is often neces- 
sary to reinforce wide pieces in or- 
der to prevent warping. This is 
done by cleating. Three m.ethods 
are employed, namely, common 
cleating, core cleating and spline 
cleating. A, in Fig. 142, shows 
the method commonly used in 
rough or hidden work. A stiif strip 
of wood is dressed, beveled and put 
on by the use of nails or screws. 
B, in Fig. 142, illustrates a method 
ised in the making of cores for ve- 
leered doors, tops, etc. The cor- 
lers are mitered, leaving a finished 

edge all the way around the piece. These strips are put on by the use of 
glue and screws. C, in Fig. 142, shows the common method used in 
cleating thin doors, sliding leaves, etc. They are usually made by feeding 
the end of the door into a circle saw and then cutting a spline to match. 




Fig. 142. — Cleats. 



70 



SHOP WORK 




Fig. 143. — Trimming the Top. 



Edging. — Adding strips, by 
gluing them on the edge of the bot- 
tom or cutting a base mould on the 
edgej'^will give to pieces such as 
tops, etc., the appearance of thick- 
ness. 

Surfacing. — Surfacing means 
the act of reducing the stock so 
that every point in the surface will 
lie in a regular plane, so it will be 
smooth, true and free from de- 
fects. Surfacing is done by run- 
ning the glued-up stock through 
the planer and sizing it to a definite thickness ; sometimes it is worked 
by hand. The latter process is primarily to free the piece of glue 
streaks. The surface should then be planed with a jack plane diagon- 
ally across (with the grain), until the surface is flat and free from 
wind. Then it should be dressed, with the grain, with a smooth- 
ing plane, leaving the surface smooth and true. Torn spots are likely 
to show up after the smoothing plane is used. These places should be 
carefully scraped until all the ragged fibers disappear. . 

Forms of Tops. — There are many forms of tops, so modified from 
the usual form that they assume diif erent names. The lamp shade offers 
a suggestion. The surface is raised, and designs are cut into the sides, 
permitting the light to shine through. The width of the sides may be 
figured from the run and rise, as rafters, and the corner is the same as 

a hip rafter, described under the 
"Steel Square", Chapter I, Part 
III. Ribs are sometimes used 
at the comers, into which the 
sides are paneled. 



Cross-plied chair bottoms, 
glued into comfortable forms, make 
another diversion from the flat top. 
Shelving, though often used as 
rails, is a series of tops usually 
called multiple tops. (See Fig. 
144.) 




Fig. 144. — L.amp Shade. 



CABINET MAKING 



71 



ASSEMBLING. 

Assembling. — The assembling of a piece of furniture is the building 
up of the frame and parts necessary for its completion. Of course the 
trimmings, such as mouldings, glass, hinges, locks and drawer pulls, are 
the final touches before it is finished. All the pieces for the frame 
should be properly proportioned, surfaced and tested to be sure they 
will fit together so that no trouble will be experienced after the glue 
is once spread. Ends of such pieces as taborets, foot-stools, settees, 

davenports, tables, dressers, side- 
boards, etc., should be built up 
first. All panels should be set and 
the tenons driven home in a coat of 
glue. Clamps, such as the car- 
penter's handscrews, and screw 
clamps suitable for this work may 
be used. Care should be taken to 
keep the piece square and out of 
wind. These ends may be con- 
nected by rails, and clamped in the 
same maimer as the ends. This 
forms the frame of the structure, 
to which the top, shelving, drawers 
and doors may be added. The 
doors are only swinging panels and 
may be hung on hinges any time 
after the frame is assembled. All 
shelving should be put in as soon 
as possible in order to help stiffen 
the frame. The top may be added 
any time after the frame is set, 
although it is often deferred long 
enough to build in shelving, drawer 
slides, partition panels, etc. 

Laying Tops. — Tops are put on 
in many vfays, but usually in a way 
most suitable to the pattern. As a 
rule, the edges of the top overhang 
the rails, forming a cornice effect. 
Fig. 145 presents several methods. 
A illustrates a common method of 
seating the top on the rails, allow- 




FiG. 145. — Methods of Laying on the 
Top. 



72 



SHOP WORK 



ing an overhang and cutting it in between the legs. The tops of the 
Legs, if of solid stock, are capped with a piece to match the grain of 
the table. These caps are made with rounded or beveled edges. 

B shows a more common way of laying on a top. It has a pleasing 
appearance and permits the anchoring of the top, leaving the surface 
unbroken. 

C shows the corner of a table, using the French leg. D is a sub-' 
top and is joined to the legs by the use of dowel pins. 

E shows a method commonly used in cheap chairs, stools, etc. The 
top of the legs have round tenons and are glued in holes bored in the 
bottom of the seat. 

Anchoring the top to the frame is a particular job. The top must 
be so placed that the edges are parallel to the rails with equal projec- 
tion on sides and ends, and it must be touching all along the rails to 
■ which it is to be fastened. 

Fig. 146 illustrates a very neat 
way of putting on the top with 
screws. It is easier, too, if the top 
and frame are turned upside down 
and the two clamped together. The 
rail, G, should have recesses cut as 
at A, with either a Fostner bit or 
. with a gouge, forming a seat, B, 
for the head of the screw, D. Holes 
may be bored for the shank, C, of 
the screw, and a smaller hole 
started into the table top. The 
upper edge of the rail should be 
coated with glue and then the 
screws driven home. Angle blocks, F, may be glued in the angle formed 
by the rail and top, E. These will stiffen the rails. 

After the piece is entirely assembled it should be gone over care- 
fully, removing any surface glue and touching up any bruised or 
scratched places that may have been made in the assembling. This 
should leave the piece ready for finishing. 

PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS 

Designs. — The designs in cabinet work are usually optional, but 
one should remember that a large piece of work is not necessarily the 
text of good workmanship. The first step to take is to select the piece 
of furniture you want, i. e., a foot-stool, taboret, etc. Sketch, or show 
your cut to the instructor in charge, and if he approves, make a work- 




FiG. 146. — Anchoring thk Top. 



CABINET MAKING 73 

ing drawing of the piece ; also write out the specifications, setting forth 
the kind of wood to be used, how constructed, kind of hardware to be 
used, the kind of finish, how many coats of the various materials, how 
each coat is to be applied and worked. The complete plans and speci- 
fications should be gone over carefully with the instructor before the 
work is started. No change in the plans and specifications should be 
permitted 'after the work is once started, unless it is approved by the 
instructor, and the waste, if any, paid for by the student. 

Ascertaining Cost — To make out the lumber bill, classify the like 
materials, starting with the heaviest pieces first. That is, if there are 
four pieces 3 inches square and 20 inches long, also other sizes, with 
more than one piece of each size, group the bill so that it may be easily 
computed by combining the lengths of pieces of the same width and 
thickness, so as to eliminate as much waste as possible. Read over the 
wood finishes carefully, selecting just what you want. Class talks 
should be given on the cost of this material *o that you will be able to 
make a conservative estimate as to the cost of the finished project. Fig- 
ure the cost of the lumber, add the cost of the finish and hardware, al- 
lowing for any waste, and this should total the cost of the material for 
the piece. 

Specimen Bill. — The following specimen statement of materials, 
construction, hardware, finish and cost is recommended, and should be 
attached to the working drawing of the pieces. 



STATEMENT OF MATERIALS AND COST OF LIBRARY TABLE. 

Material — ■ 

All wood to be kiln dried quartered red oak. 

Legs— One of 3''x3"xl0', at 12c $ .90 

Top— One I''xl2''xl0', at 12c 1.20 

And strips for thickness. 

Rails and slats I''xl0''x6', at 12c .60 

Stretcher, Ii''xl0''x3i', at 15c .66 

Drawer, ^''xl2"x28'', at 7c .15 



$3.51 



The frame is to be put together with mortise and tenon joints, 
properly glued and doweled. The top is to be doweled and glued. Cleats, 
adding thickness, are to be screwed on the sides and ends. End grain 



74 SHOP WORK 

miist show on the ends. The top is to be put on with screws, toed in 
through the inside of the rails, and glue blocks added. 

Screws, nails and glue .15 

Finish — 

Light golden oak (dull gloss), one coat of stain, one coat 
of paste filler to match stain, two light coats of white 
shellac, each to be sanded down, two coats of wax. 
Estimate cost .90 

Estimate material bill $4.56 

Time to construct : hours 



SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDENTS 

The following pages present a series of projects arranged in the 
proper sequence with respect to the intricacy of the plans and to the 
complexity of the joints involved. The construction of these projects 
will afford practical application of the fundamentals presented in the 
subject-matter of the text. Line drawings with dimensions only are 
given, it being intended that the teacher exercise independence of 
thought in arranging his course. At the same time the student is given 
no aid which will rob him of his own initiative in making working 
drawings, in making up his bills of material and in estimating the cost of 
construction of the projects. 



PLATE I 




Sled 




Suggestions Foe Children, 



< 
Oh 




PLATE IV 




blackincf C^a^se and Jtool 



3 aw Horse 




30 

Chicken Feeder 






^o 



Top IZXJZ _ 
Base IZtlZ 

Waste Paper Baskets 




Top IZXJZ 
Base id'xiO^ 



Essentials For the Fakm, Yard and Home. 






< 
Ah 



PLATE VI 




Top IZ X IZ 
Heijht Z4" 



Top si" Dia 
Height 24" 



4 



Shaving Mirror 










Glasses 6"XI0''& 8")^I0" 




W 



n\ 



Top iz"x IZ 
Heijht Z4" 



Top 10X14 
Heijht 24 




HI 



Odd Pieces For the Den and Bath Room. 










- w 



"v. 



^ 



PLATE VIII 




Top 10X10 
Base /o"x/0 



Top IZXIZ 
Base IZ'XIZ' 





Top I0"XI0 
Base IZXIZ 



Pedestals 



\ Porch Swing 




-^^ 



Pedestals and Poech Swing. 



PLATE IX 




Booh and na^Qzine Racks 



LiBRAEY FUENITUEE. 



PLATE X 




19^2 Base 
67"Hijh 



14X14 Base 
S7 Hi oh 




fJ K/3" Base 
sr" Hijh 




Lamp Standards. 



PLATE XI 



14 Base 
6'Hijh 



10 Base 
1%' sq.CoL 
S' Hi^h. 





I Z" Base 
/¥sq. Col. 
5-7"Hijh 






IZ Base 
Z'scj. Col. 
5'Hijh 



14 Base 
6'Hijh 



Hall Trees. 



PLATE XII 




IZ Base 
6' Height 




12X14 Base 
s'e" Heiohi 



Table Lamps and IIaxl Tkees. 



< 




PLATE XIV 




^ 



Top I0"XI0^^ 
tie/jht Z4i' 




Top IS X 18 
Height 30 




Top 16 XZ2 
Height JO" 



Top IS'XJS 
Height 50" 





Telephone Stands. 



PLATE XV 




Z3 XZ3 



19X19 



Chairs For the Living Boom. 



PLATE XVI 




/j-^ ;< 15^4 



fr 




^ 



I5hy.i5^4 



DO 



15 XI5 



CO 



10X10 




Adjuncts of tpie Hall. 



PLATE XVII 




Dining TtooM Pieckr. 



PLATE XVIII 




Medicine Cabinet 
5"kI5"xI3" 
Glass /£"XI4" 



18 Panel 

Heijht ejf 




b 





^ 



Medicine Cabinet 

s"xzo"xz9" 

Glass IZ"xi4" 



Bath Room Accessories. 



X 
X 

< 




H 

Ah 




PLATE XXII 



4> 



3^ 




Bedstead 

4-6 X6-6 



.11 ^1 ^11 





Chiffonier 
I8"XJ0" 



\Mash Stand 
I6"X25" 




Bed Room Furnittjee. 



PLATE XXIII 



35" Hijh 
Z0''X4Z" 






18 X35 
39" hijh 




Zl X50 
45"Hi^h 



15 x48 
54" Hi oh 



Dining Room Fubnituke, 



PLATE XXIV 



rioor or Walk Forms 




Grade 



Forms For Concrete 
Fence Posts 







Cement Construction, 



PLATE XXV 




Cross Section 
in Mould 



Cement Construction. 



CHAPTER III 
CARPENTRY 

There are many things of vital interest even in the simplest house 
construction. To describe all, or even a single operation, in detail, is 
beyond the scope of this text. But to present carpentry — general wood- 
work as applied to house construction — so that the student may be able 
to plan, estimate and construct, as well as to talk intelligently of gen- 
eral construction, is the purpose of this chapter. 

. House Planning. — To plan a house, one must be familiar with the 
parts that go to make up a house. The rooms should be so arranged as 
to afford the greatest convenience ; the stairways and chimneys located ; 
the plumbing, heating and electric wiring given due consideration; the 
porches, steps, doors and windows arranged in their proper order ; and, 
in fact, the whole house should be planned to be healthful and con- 
venient, and its general appearance pleasing. These ideas, sketched 
upon paper, become plans, and the written descriptions of materials, 
details, etc., are the specifications, which are, in turn, the working in- 
struments in the hands of the builder. 

Estimate of Cost.— To be able to estimate the cost of building, one 
must know how to read a blue print or working drawing and to inter- 
pret the specifications accurately; to make out a conservative lumber 
bill; to estimate the labor necessary for the construction; and to total 
the sub-contractor's bids on painting, plastering, plumbing, etc., not 
overlooking a single item necessary for the completion of the building. 
It is a common practice for contractors to let out — sub-contract — dif- 
ferent parts of the work as the masonry, plastering, etc., and to accept 
bids on the work as part of the estimate for the construction of the 
house. 

Procedure. — To insure durability in the construction of a house, 
one must be able to distribute the timbers, boards and other materials 
according to the plans and specifications so that they are rigidly and 
firmly anchored. The order of procedure in the construction of a house 
is complicated in that there are times when it is necessary for masons, 
carpenters, electricians, plumbers and steamfitters to be working at one 
time, i. e., when the framing of the house has reached a stage most 

75 



76 



SHOP WORK 



convenient for these various parts to be installed. However, by a little 
ingenuity on the part of the contractor or building superintendent, the 
work of each may progress without interfering with the work of others. 

Staking Out for Foundation. — A very good start toward the erec- 
tion of a house is to be sure that the front of the house is parallel with 




o_ 



Fig. 147a. Squaring tee Foundation. 



the street or highway on which it is located. In laying out the founda- 
tion of a house, begin by establishing the location of one corner of the 
proposed building at the proper distance from the street. Mark this 




VA. 



Fig. 147b. Squaring the Foundation. 



location by driving a stake. To this stake attach a line and run it past 
the next corner of the building and parallel with the street. Run a line 
back from the street from the first corner. A, in Fig. 147a, at right 



CARPENTRY 



77 



angles to the line AB. To do this, measure 6 feet from A on AB and 8 
feet from A on AC. Swing the line AC at C until the distance between 
E and F is 10 feet. This makes the front corner at A square. The 
other corners at B, C and D may be squared in the same way. Fig. 147b 
shows the same method except that the lines are fastened securely to 
batter boards. A cloth measuring tape is held with the zero mark at A, 
the point of intersection of the two lines. Measure out 3 yards to the 
point B and let out 9 additional yards of tape. While holding the tape 
at a point 5 yards from B secure the 9-yard mark at A. Draw the tape 
taut and a right triangle will be formed the sides of which are 3 yards, 
4 yards and 5 yards, respectively. With this completed it will be a sim- 
ple task to establish the lines square with each other. A method of 
squaring the corners by the use of a steel tape is to describe an arc, RS, 
with C as the center and the width of the building as the radius; de- 
scribe a second arc, OP, intersecting the arc, RS, with B as the center 
and the length of the building as the radius. The intersection of the 
two arcs at D locate the back corner of the house with the walls, DB 
and DC, square to BA and CA, respectively. The lines should be run 
for all outside and inside walls, cellar excavation, footing, etc. 



EXCAVATION y^ND FOUNDATION. 

Excavation. — The excavation for the masonry work should be made 
deep enough to give a firm foundation, the depth depending upon the 
character of the soil. It is a common practice to make the trenches 
-much wider than the thickness of the walls for the purpose of estab- 
lishing a footing that will assist in distributing the weight of the struc- 
ture over a greater surface. This arrangement retards the settling of 
the building which is quite common, especially in rainy weather. 

Foundation. — A foundation con- 
sists of two parts: Footing, C, 
and wall, D, in Fig. 148. The 
footing is usually made of a suit- 
able concrete mixture; the wall 
is generally made of stone, brick or 
cement blocks. The walls should be 
plumb, and the top surfaces of those 
of the same height should lie in the 
same plane. Vents, properly 
screened, should be constructed in 

Fig. 148.— Cross Section of a Foundation the Walls for the purpose of giving a 

A B, Gronnci Level c, Footing D, Wall free circulation of air. These vents 

are usually placed near the top of 




78 



SHOP WORK 



the foundation in opposite walls. If there is no basement, one opening 
should be left — usually under a porch — in order that the plumbing or 
wiring may be changed without the necessity of cutting into the finished 
foundation. 

FOUNDATION FRAME. 

Plates. — Plates, B, in Fig. 149, serve as the footing for the joists. 
They lie directly on the foundation and should be set in green, unset 
mortar. The snug articulation thus secured serves as a protection 
against cold winds. Good, straight, sound planks should be selected for 
the plates and they should be spiked securely to the sills. 

Sills.— HYiQ sills, C, 
in Fig. 149, hold the 
joists in position and help 
to carry the load of the 
outside walls. They, too, 
should be of selected 
planks. The end joists 
become sills. The kind of 
construction as illus- 
trated in Fig. 150 and 
Fig. 149, determines 
whether the sill will form 
a "T" with the plate (T- 
sill), or whether it will 
be the shape of a box 
(box-sill). The T-sill 
makes a stronger con- 
struction than the box- 
sill but the frame is a lit- 
tle harder to raise. 




Fig. 149. — Foundation FSame. (Box Sill.) 
A — Foundation D — lower plate G — beam 

B — foundation plate E — stud H — joist 

C — sill F — ^pier I — bridging 



Joists. — The timbers which have their bearing upon the foundation 
plates and upon which the flooring is nailed, are called joists, H, in Fig. 
149. The stiffness of the floors will depend largely on the dimensions 
and spacing of the joists and the length of the span. "Lower joists are 
spaced either 16 or 24 inches from center to center. All joists, studs 
and rafters that are to be plastered over are spaced 16 inches from 
center to center. 

Beams. — It is often necessary to support the ends of joists, over an 
excavation, broken foundation, etc., by the use of a beam, G, in Fig. 149. 
The beams are supported in turn by piers, F, in Fig. 149. Sometimes, 



CARPENTRY 79 

in the case of a long span of the joists, where they are to carry heavy 
loads, beams are secured by additional support. 

Bridging. — To prevent the joists from buckling, and to assist in dis- 
tributing the load, bridging, I, in Fig. 149, is nailed into place, between 
the joists. 

FRAME OF HOUSE. 

Studs. — The studs, F, in Fig. 150, when erected, serve as the frame 
of the house. Studs are divided into three classes : Studs for the out- 
side walls, studs for partitions, and studs for bearing partitions. The 
length of the studs forming the Outside walls is determined by the 
height of the ceilings, and the thickness of the second story joists. Studs 
for the outside walls are spaced 16 inches apart, and nailed in place by 
means of a lower plate, D, in Fig. 149, at the bottom, and a similar plate, 
called the upper plate, at the top. The upper plate is usually doubled, 
as it is the main bearing support for the roof. In case of a second story, 
a ribbon, G, in Fig. 150, usually l"x4", is set in the inside edge^ of the 
studs, on the side walls, in order to afford a suitable footing for the 
second story joists. The ends of the upper joists are nailed directly 
to the studs. This stiffens the frame greatly and affords a nailing place 
for the flooring. Openings, K, in Fig. 150, are cut in the frame for all 
main entrances and windows, the sizes depending upon the size of the 
windows and doors to be set in. After the outside walls are raised, 
nailed in place, and plumbed, they should be securely braced by nailing 
strips of wood diagonally across the walls on the inside. These braces 
may be removed after the boxing is nailed on. Over the outside walls, 
boxing, building paper and siding are nailed. The inside walls are 
lathed and plastered. Bearing partitions serve as partitions and at the 
same time carry the load of the second story joists. Partition studding 
carry no load, as the walls run parallel to the run. of the upper joists. 
They serve as room divisions only. Openings are cut in all inside par- 
titions. Inside walls are lathed and plastered on both sides. 

Floor Lining. — The floor lining, E, Fig. 150, may be laid when the 
structure has reached this stage. Floor lining or sub-floor lining, as it 
is sometimes called, is a layer of boards, usually boxing material, laid 
on diagonally across the entire building. This makes the house much 
stiffer and warmer. The bearing partitions may be laid over this sub- 
floor and the second story joists nailed in place. These joists should be 
spaced sixteen inches on center, the outside ends resting on the ribbon 
and spiked to the studs ; the inside ends resting on the bearing partition 
and spiked to the joist coming from the opposite wall. Care should be 



SHOP WORK 




A — foundation 
B — foundation plate 
C— sill 

D — ^trimmer sill for win- 
dow opening- 



Fig. 150. — Feame of House (With T-Sill). 

E — floor lining J — end upper joist 

F — stud K — opening 

G — ^I'ibbon L — Slower joist 

H — upper joists M — boxing 

I — corner post 



CARPENTRY 



81 



taken to see that the walls are left absolutely straight. If the bearings 
of the upper story joists are far apart, it is advisable to cut in bridging 
between the joists before nailing on the floor lining. The bearing parti- 
tions on the second floor may be raised in the same manner as those on 
the first floor; then the ceiling joists are properly spaced and nailed in 
place, allowing a projection over the walls for the cornice. 

Boxing. — Boxing, M, in Fig. 150, of rough boards, usually l"xl2", 
may be nailed on the outside of the frame when the building has reached 
this stage of construction. There are many ways of laying on boxing 
but perhaps the method most common is that of running it diagonally 
from the corners. 

CORNICE. 

Cornice. — The cornice consists 
of the following parts, which are 
shown in Fig. 151 by proper letter- 
ing : Plancia, F ; frieze, H ; facia, E ; 
bed, G; and the crown moulding, D. 
These parts are run around the house 
in hip roofs and along the sides, and 
short returns on the ends, in gable 
end roofs. The plancia may be made 
of a single 'board, or it may be built 
of matched boards, as ceiling, floor- 
ing, etc. It is nailed directly to the 
projecting ceiling joists, all of which, 
should be of the same length and in 
alignment. The frieze is usually a 
wide board, although a double frieze 
is sometimes used, and is nailed to 
the boxing^ with its upper edge 
against the plancia. The moulding cut in the angle formed by the 
plancia and the frieze is called the bed mould. Moulding gives a fin- 
ished appearance to the cornice. The facia is usually a single board, 
nailed to the ends of the projecting joists and also to the edge of the 
plancia. The shingles overhang the facia, and, as a finish, a crown mould 
is cut in the angle formed by the facia and the shingles. Sometimes 
guttering is substituted for mould. 

FRAMING OF THE ROOF. 

Classification of Roofs. — Roofs may be classified according to shape. 
The three most common and distinct classes are the hip roof, gable end 
roof, and the gambrel roof. The difference is entirely in the design of 




Fig. 151.- 


— COENICE. 


A— rafter 


H— frieze 


B — sheathing 


I — siding 


C — shingles 


J — joist 


D — ci'own moulding 


K — frame plate 


E — facia 


L — studding 


G— bed 


M — rafted' plate 



82 



SHOP WORK 



the roof, and different roofs therefore require different framing of the 
timbers necessary for the construction. These timbers are rafters, 
ridge, collar beams and braces. The timbers are finished over with 
sheathing, shingles and comb boards (see Fig. 152) to make the finished 
roof. 




Fig. 152. — Roof Fokms. (1) Hip Roof; (2) Gambeel; (3) Gable. 



Rafters. — The pitch of the roof, run and length of rafters, plumb 
and heel cuts are described under the "Steel Square" in Part 
III, but it will be well to observe that it is not necessary to place the 
rafters 16 inches on center unless they are to be plastered over. As 
sheathing cuts to advantage on even feet, it will be well to space the 
rafters at 24 inches and as it will be readily seen that a footing 
will be necessary for the rafters. This is made by nailing a ribbon, 
M, in Fig. 151, to the top of the projecting joists, J, in Fig. 151. 
A hook or shoulder at the heel cut of the rafters will assist mate^ 
rially in raising the rafters in place, as the rafters are usually nailed at 
the plumb cut first, and then raised in pairs. The shoulder will prevent 
the rafters from slipping over the ribbon. Sometimes the rafters are 
tied together by nailing a board across. These boards are called collar 
beams. A, in Fig. 152. Collar beams prevent the roof from spreading 
and braces, B, in Fig. 152, prevent the roof from sagging in the center. 

Sheathing. — Sheathing, B, in Fig. 151, ties all the rafters together 
and serves as a base for the shingles. The better grade of houses have 
the sheathing water tight; but, as a general rule, narrow strips, l''x4'% 
are nailed on, leaving a space between the strips equal to the width of 
the strips. In the latter case, the estimate for the board feet necessary 
for the sheathing is equal to one-half the square feet in the roof surface. 

Shingling. — Too much care in the shingling, C, in Fig. 151, of a 
house is almost impossible, as the shingles must stand the brunt of the 
weather. Shingles are easier to put on when damp, but if they are put 
on when dry they should be laid with some space between them to pre- 
vent buckling when they expand on getting wet. Shingles are laid on in 



CARPENTRY 



SI 



straight rows, commencing at the bottom with a double row, and break- 
ing joints, exposing a part of the shingle to the weather. Usually four 
and one-half inches of the shingle is exposed on roofs, and more is 
exposed on the sides of the house if the specifications call for shingles 
on the outside walls. It will take nine hundred shingles laid four and 
one-half inches to the weather to cover one square. A square is the 
term or unit of measure used in determining the quantity of shingles 
necessary for a roof and contains one hundred square feet. Three 
pounds of shingle nails will lay one thousand shingles. 

Comb-Boards. — Comb-boards serve as a divide; they also tie down 
the last few rows of shingles and prevent leakage at the ridge. 

The house is now entirely enclosed, openings are cut, partitions set ; 
the plumbers have run their stacks, vents, water and gas lines; the 

electricians have placed their wires 
for lights and bells, and put in their 
switches; and the lather may have 
started his work for the plasterer. 
The carpenters may now cut in the 
flue stands, make frames and jambs 
and get out the material for the stair- 
ways. 

FRAMES AND JAMBS. 

Windoiv and Door Frames. — Out- 
side window and door frames are 
alike in many respects. Several of 
the parts are similar and have simi- 
lar names; the frames are set in 
openings in the same manner, and 
neither is trimmed until the plaster- 
ing is done. 

Window Frames. — W i n d o w 

frames consist of pulleys, stiles, 

header, sub-sill, 

A — stud 

B — ^lath and plaster 

C — laead. casing (in- 
side) 

D — opening header 

E — window stop 

F — ^parting stop 

G — glass 

H — check rail 
I — window stool 




Fig. 153. 



-Ckoss Section of a Window 
Frame, 



sill, outside casing, 

J — apron 

K — head casing (out- 
side) 
L — casing (outside) 
M — blind stop 
N— sill 
O — sub-sill 
P — trimmer sill 
Q — siding 



84 



SHOP WORK 



blind and parting stops. In the more expensive houses a weight box is 
built as part of the frame. This frame is properly set in an opening 
and afterwards trimmed with inside casing, window stool, apron and 
inside stop. The sashes are fitted and hung on weights, but 
care should be taken to hang the upper sash on weights heavier than 
itself so that it may be held in place. Pulley stiles are the sides of the 
frame. The header is dadoed into the stiles at the top and the sub- 
sill at the bottom. The sub-sill serves as a footing for the outside 
casing, also as a water table. The sill/ serves as a seat for the sash. 
The blind stop is nailed to the edge of the stiles, and the outside casing 
over the blind stop, leaving an offset. This offset is a seat for the 
blinds, or screens. The parting stop, together with the blind and win- 
dow stop, serve as guides for the sash. The parting stop is rabbeted 
into the pulley stiles. In this shape the frame is set in the open- 
ing, the outside casing being nailed into the boxing. The inside trim 
is added to give, a pleasing appearance and to cover the rough edges 
of the plaster. 

Door Frames. — Outside door frames have only the stiles and sill. 
The frame is trimmed with inside casing and threshold, and the door is 
then properly hung. 



Jambs. — Jambs are inside frames for doors, 
stiles and header ; the trim is added later. 



They have only the 



Grounds. — Grounds are gauges for plastering. They are strips of 
wood usually three-fourths of an inch thick, nailed on the inside edge 

of the frames, on both edges of the 
jambs, and frequently across the 
studding, at the base, as a straight 
edge for the plasterer to work to. 

Corner Strips. — Comer strips or 
corner casings are nailed on the cor- 
ners to afford a stop against which 
the siding may be butted, (See Fig. 
153.) 

Siding. — Siding is of two classes : 
Lap siding and drop siding. Lap sid- 
ing is tapering in its cross-section, 
and is put on by lapping the bottom 
Fig. 154.— Siding. edge of one board over the top edge 

A— drop c— lap siding of another. Drop siding is milled so 

B— building paper D— boxing that the joint will turn water. Sid- 




CARPENTRY 



85 




Fig. 155. — Laying the Floor. 



ing is nailed to the boxing over building paper, and is cut between cas- 
ings and corner strips. It is the outside finish and should be of selected 
material. All siding should be on before the plastering is started. 

Base. — The base F, 
in Fig. 155, is a protec- 
tion to the plastering and 
should be nailed to the 
studding through the 
plastering before the fin- 
ished flooring is put on. 
The central location of 
all studs should be 
marked with short lines 
on the floor-lining, and 
perpendicular to the 
walls, before the plaster- 
ing is completed. There 
will then be no difficulty 
in nailing on the base. 
Allowance should be 
made for the thickness of 
the flooring, and a mould- 
ing-base-shoe is cut in 
the angle formed by the 
base and the floor. 
Floor. — In laying the floor, H, in Fig. 155, extreme care should be 
taken to drive all joints up tight with a block, to prevent br using, and 
to see that all boards are nailed down. Flooring is often finished after 
it is nailed in place by planing and then scraping. 

STAIR BUILDING. 

Stairs. — The first points to be determined in building stairs are 
approximate pitch, complete rise of stairs, complete run of stairs, the. 
well-hole, and head clearance. The parts which make up the stairs are 
the stair horses, A ; risers, B ; treads, C ; skirting boards, D, E ; platform, 
F ; newel posts, G ; handrails, H ; and spindles, I, as shown in Fig. 156. 
The stairway must be built as part of the house, and the pitch of the 
stairs will depend largely on the height of the second floor above the 
first floor, together with the run of the stairs, or that distance from the 
first riser to a plumb line dropped from the point of landing In many 
cases the stairways are made winding or are cut into the ceiling of the 
next room in order to obtain a suitable pitch. 



A — stud 


G — base shoe 


B— lath 


H — flooring 


C — plaster 


I — building paper 


D — ^lower plate 


J — floor lining or sub-floor 


E — wall 


K — joist 


F — ^base 





S6 



SHOP WORK 




A— stair horses 

B — riser 

C — tread 

D— ^skirting board (front) 



Fig. 156.— Stairs. 
E— skirting board (back) 
F — platform 
G — ^uewel post 
H — liand rail 



I — spindle 

J — base 

K — corner of room 

L — ^mitered riser cut 

M — moulding 

^ Pitch.—Pitch is the degree of incline, based upon the height of the 
riser and the width of the tread. Note the following table : 



Riser 

Very steep pitch 12 inches 

Steep pitch 7 inches 

Medium pitch 7 inches 

Low pitch 61 inches 



Tread 

4 inches 
7 inches 

10 inches 

11 inches 



CARPENTRY 87 

Risers.— Suwose that the height from the floor-hning on the first 
floor to the finished floor of the second story is just nine feet, four 
inches (9' 4'0 and that a riser of about seven inches is desired. It will 
readily be seen that there will be sixteen risers of seven inches each. 
There will be one less tread than the number of risers. Why? If a 
tread of 10 inches is to be used, it will take 15 treads of 10 inches each 
or 12^ feet for the run of the sleepers. 

Distance between floors divided by width of riser equals number of 

risers. 

Number of risers, minus one, times width of tread, equals run of 

stairs. 

Counting the landing as the sixteenth tread, in this case, the rise 
of sixteen risers and the run of sixteen treads forms a right angled 
triangle, the diagonal of which is the exact length of the sleepers, or 
as they are sometimes called, stair-horses. The pitch— 7 on the tongue 
and 10 on the blade of the square— of the stairs will give the plumb 
and heel cuts of the sleepers as well as the cuts for the risers and treads 
applied in their order. It is a common practice to cut blocks the proper 
pitch and nail them to dimension stock, for sleepers. The sleepers 
should be exactly alike and in perfect alignment when in place. 

Landing. — In case of a landing, extreme care should be taken to 
get the landing anchored so the risers will be the same height for the 
upper run as for the lower run. 

Risers, Treads and Skirting Boards.— The sleepers carry the load, 
but on good stairs they are encased by risers, treads, and skirting 
boards. The front skirting board faces the front sleeper. The only 
difference between them is that the skirting board is of one inch stock 
and the riser cut mitered. The back skirting board serves as a base. 
The risers are next in order. They are mitred across the end to fit the 
skirting (front) board and nailed to the face of the sleepers. The 
treads should be a little wider than the cut of the sleepers in order to 
give an overhang. They are nailed to the sleepers. The front skirting 
board and the risers are nailed to them from underneath. A small 
moulding is often cut in the angle of the overhang on both the front and 
end of the treads. This gives a very pleasing effect. 

Newel Posts, Hand Rails and Spindles.— 'Newel posts, hand rails, 
and spindles are the last pieces to be built in before the stairs are com- 
pleted and ready to be turned over to the finisher. They serve as a 
fence and are always run around open well-holes as well as the face of 
a stairway. The newel posts are usually built up hollow. 



88 SHOP WORK 

Well Hole. — The well hole is the opening in the upper joist cut to 
make head room for the stairway. After the well-hole is cut and the 
sleepers are in place, the plastering is done before any finished (sur- 
faced) lumber is nailed in place. This protects the finish from the plas- 
ter stains. 

Porehes. — The parts which make up a porch are joists, flooring, 
columns, ceiling joist, ceiling, cornice, rafters, sheathing, shingles, box 
and steps. These parts are built into the porch as they are into the main 
part of the house; only the column and box are extra items. It mighj 
be well to add that the porch floor should drop about one-fourth of an 
inch to the foot for drainage, and the flooring should be laid in oil or 
some other good wood preservative. The columns are the timbers that 
support the roof. Over the tops of the columns is built a U-shaped box 
which serves as a plate for the upper joist. It distributes the load of 
the roof to the various columns. 

Scaffolding. — Scaffolding is used to render the various parts of the 
work accessible. It is used to stand on, and consists of a few boards 
laid across saw-horses, a long, narrow plank swung from the roof, or 
boards laid across supports which are in turn nailed at one end to cor- 
ners, openings or blocks, and at the other end to light dimension stock. 

Snapping Lines. — No other line of work offers a better field for the 
use of snapping lines than carpentry. A line is chalked by drawing it 
across a piece of colored chalk, held and turned in the hand, and it is 
then stretched over the desired place to be marked. By holding the ends 
to the surface and then pulling the center back in a line perpendicular 
to the surface and letting it "snap," the chalk will form a straight line. 
Chalked lines are used in laying shingles, cutting off lookouts, cutting 
off upper joist for the cornice, and in trimming porch floors. 




Fig. 157. — Beads. 



CHAPTER IV 
BEADS AND MOULDINGS 

Beads. — Beads and mouldings are used for decorative rather than 
constructional purposes. It is the function of beads to conceal cracks 

by their shadows and break the 
large smooth surfaces on stock 
used for wainscoting, ceiling, 
etc. It is not practicable to use 
glued joints on wide surfaces, as 
the swelling and shrinking is so 
great that it is better, when 
joining the boards, to tongue and groove them and use the bead to hide 
the crack, as in Fig. 157. 

Mouldings.— Mouldings, which are larger 
and more complex than beads, give light and 
shade effects the same as the latter, and make 
more distinct certain prominent features of cabi- 
net work. The common forms of mouldings are 
the ogee (Fig. 158) and the round nose (Fig. 

159). From these two forms, all other designs 
of mouldings are evolved. Mouldings may be roughly 
classified under three divisions : Crown' mouldings, 
intermediate mouldings, and base mouldings. 

Fig. 159. — Round Nose 



Crown Mouldings. — Crown 
Mouldings are used for finishing the 
tops of wardrobes, sideboards, book 
cases, tops of door and window cas- 
ings, etc. Fig. 160 illustrates a few 
possible forms. 




Fig. 15S. — Ogee 





Fig. 160. — Ceown Moulds. 



Intermediate Mouldings. — Intermediate mouldings, when used, are 
placed so as to be more or less on the level with the eye of a person 
standing or sitting. Caps for wainscoting, window stools, picture 
mouldings, etc., are of this class. (See Fig. 161.) Sometimes this class 

89 



90 



SHOP WORK 





of mouldings is placed on the edge of table tops and articles 
of similar nature to give them the appearance of extra 
thickness. Note in Fig. 162 that the figures are of the same 
thickness but A appears to be thicker than B. 

Base Mouldings. — Base mouldings, as the name indi- 
cates, are used at the foot or bottom of base boards in house 
construction, on base boards for cupboards, wardrobes, 
etc., as shown in Fig. 163. 

Designation of Moulding Forms. — These forms do not 
go by names but by numbers which manufacturers use in 
common, and refer to as stock num- 
bers. Small moulds are usually 
made of resawed strips which util- 
ize material otherwise wasted. The 
strips are sized and then fed 

through moulding machines (stickers) 
which have cutters mounted on revolving 
arbors. Heavier moulds, such as crown 
and base, are made in gang moulding 
machines, which cut the boards to the de- 
sired width and shapSo Mouldings are 
quoted at so much per hundred lineal feet. 




Fig. 161.— 
Intermedi- 
ate Moulds 



Fig. 



162. — Comparison of 
Trimmings. 




Fig. 163. — Base Moulds. 



CHAPTER V 
VENEER AND ITS APPLICATION 

Veneering. — Veneering is the art of overlaying or facing a piece 
of material with a thin layer of wood or other material to secure a better 
outer finish or decoration. It is generally employed in overlaying infe- 
rior wood with the leaf of superior wood and the outside veneer is 
attached by means of glue. 

Sawed and Rotary Cut Veneer. — There are two kinds of veneer in 
general use: Sawed and rotary cut. Sawed veneer is so cut as to bring 
out the quartered effect, flake-like spots, on the leaf. It is more costly 
than the rotary cut, being thicker, and more lumber is wasted in cutting. 
Rotary cut veneer is produced by thoroughly steaming the log, then 
placing it in a suitable lathe with an automatically operated cutter. As 
the log turns in the lathe, the cutter removes a thin sheet of wood the 
length of the log. In fact, this sheet rolls off in the same manner as 
paper comes off a roll. By this method of cutting, the leaf is thinner 
than the sawed cut, and, there being no waste, it is therefore cheaper. 
It is used largely in core and cross banding work. 

Veneer and Solid Built Stock. — The increased use of veneers by the 
woodworking industries proves the superiority of veneer built stock 
over the old method of solid stock. There are three reasons why the 
former is better than the latter. First, the heavier the stock, the more 
difficulty there is in holding it in shape, owing to the imperfect season- 
ing as well as the climatic conditions ; second, a combined advantage of 
using waste material sawed into small pieces and distributing the work- 
ing strain as compared with the solid board; third, the superior effect 
of design in the laying of the veneer. 

Core Stock. — Core stock may be of any kind of wood, properly sea- 
soned, well glued, and surfaced on both sides to the proper thickness. 
The side or sides to be veneered are toothed, a process which disturbs 
the fibre of the wood sufficiently to enable the glue to take a strong hold 
of the surface. 

Preparing Veneer. — In preparing the veneer, make the side adjoin- 
ing the core stock smooth, tooth it with a toothing plane, or sand it 

91 



92 



SHOP WORK 




Fig. 164. — Core and Caul. 



with No. 3 garnet paper (sand with the grain). If garnet paper is 
used, care must be taken to see that all grains of garnet are removed 
before applying the veneer. If possible, have both core and veneer at 
working temperature, and apply the glue with a brush. Put on the 
veneer counterwise, and clamp firmly until all the surplus glue is 
squeezed out. It is well to place paper between the veneer and the heavy 
flat top or weight, an arrangement which helps to distribute the pres- 
sure uniformly. The paper absorbs any glue that may be forced through 
the thin veneer. If cross banding is desired, it should be done before 
the top or bottom of the core is veneered, as the top overlaps the cross 
band. 

Veneering Regular and Irregular Surfaces. 
— Besides veneering flat surfaces, which has 
just been described, there are many other 
regular forms to be veneered, such as swell 
drawer fronts, half round, ogee, cylinders, 
cones, etc. All irregular surfaces must have 
a caul, an opposite of the side to be veneered, 
as shown in Fig. 164. In this Figure, A repre- 
sents the core stock and B is the caul. If the 
caul is small, it may be cut on the band saw, 
but if large, it must be built up from sections 
and placed at regular intervals over the core. 
These sections are fastened, one-half to three- 
fourths of an inch apart, to a piece of canvas 
or heavy paper which, with strips nailed to the 
back of these sections, helps to hold them in 
place and distribute the pressure uniformly. 
The canvas or paper side is placed against the 
veneered side as shown in Fig. 165. When the 
irregularities are too abrupt, the veneer must 
first be made pliable by forming it over hot steam pipes or soaking it in 
water and then clamping it between the core and caul to dry. This pre- 
vents splitting and gives the desired form before gluing. 

Veneer Designs. — In ap- 
plying veneer, designs may be 
worked out in swell drawer 
fronts as shown in Fig. 166, 
In this figure A shows the 
veneer applied in one piece, 
horizontally to the half round 
drawer front; B shows the Fig 166.— Swell Drawee Fronts. 




Fig. 165. — Built-up Caul. 




VENEER AND ITS APPLICATION 



93 




;7. — Veneeked Cyt,indees and Cone. 



veneer halved and the grain 
radiating from the horizontal 
center to the vertical ; C pre- 
sents a surface with the grain 
radiating from two lines which 
are at right angles to each other. 
These same effects may be 
worked out on cylinders and 
cones as shown in Fig. 167. 



Veneering Cylinders and Cones. 
— The device commonly used in hold- 
ing veneer on cylinders and cones is 
made of sheet metal with blocks fast- 
ened to the ends. Clamps are placed 
on these blocks as shown in the cross 
section in Fig. 168. Jointing veneers 
on cylinders and cones may be done 
by over-lapping the edges and, with a 
thin bladed knife, cutting down the 
overlap as in Fig. 169. 

Panel Work Veneer. 
— Veneering is exten- 
sively used in panel work 
on desks, sideboards, ^^*^- ^^'- 
seats and backs of chairs. 

The core stock in these panels is often built up of three or 
more thin layers or leaves, known in commercial use as 
three-ply, four-ply, etc. These layers are so placed that 
the grain in the adjoining sides cross each other. This ar- 
rangement prevents cupping and buckling and therefore the side or sides 
remain in the same place. Veneers may be put on the cores by heating 
a sack of sand and placing it on the glued surface and leaving until cold. 




-Veneer Clamp for Cylinders. 



Fig. 169.— 

Veneering 

A Cylinder 



PART 111 
SHOP TALKS 



CHAPTER I 
STEEL SQUARE. 



\iiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiP 



Steel Square.— The face of the steel square is the side 
upon which the manufacturer's name is stamped; the re- 
verse side is the back. The larger arm is the body or blade, 
the shorter arm the tongue. The steel square in most 
common use has a blade 24"x2" and a tongue IQ^'xlV^'- 

Scales and Tables.Steel squares, while having the 
dimensions given, vary greatly in y i|ii | ii |ini i | ii | ii [ii| i i[ii|ii|ii| i ni i | 
the graduations shown on their 
edges. Figure 170 represents the 
particular square which has the 
widest sale, for the graduations are the ones 
used most frequently. Its number is 14. It 
is left to another one, however, to bear the 
distinction of having the greatest number of 
useful scales and measures. The number for 
this form is 100. It includes graduations in 
eighths, tenths, twelfths, sixteenths, thirty- 
seconds and hundredths of an inch, also the 
Essex Board measure, an eight-square meas- 
ure, a brace measure and a rafter table. 



Essex Board Measure. — The Essex 
Board Measure table is designed for the 
calculation of the number of board feet in 
any board. The figure 12 in the graduation 
marks on the outside edge, represents a one 
inch board 12 inches wide and is the start- 
ing point for all calculations, the smaller 
figures under the 12 representing the length. 
A board 12 inches wide and 8 feet long 
measures 8 square feet and so on down the 
table. To ascertain the number of square 



Tfjp -1 yA 

Steel SQUAEE^^et in a board 8 feet long and 6 inches wide, j^^^ i7i._essex 
No. 14 find the figure 8 in the scale under the 12 board measure. 

97 



98 



SHOP WORK 




Fig. 172. — Cutting an "Eight Square' 
Stick 



inch graduation mark and pass the 
pencil along to the graduation mark 
6, representing the width of the 
board ; stop on the scale at 4, which 
indicates 4 feet, the board measure 
required. A board I''xl0i"xl4' 
equals 11 8/12 square feet and so 
on. In determining the number of 
board feet in a plank or timber, 
multiply the result obtained by the 
calculation on the square by the 
thickness of the piece. 

Octagon Scale. — The Octagon 
Scale is along the middle of the face 



|ijf|i|i|ili|i|i|i|i|i|i|i|t|i|i|i|i|i|i|i|i 




'|||i|'pi|'|i|i|ijiiij'|i|i|i 
41 5 



i'|i|<|i|>|i||iT>H'i'l'i'l'''|"Ti'l'i 
6 7 



fhiil 



ililih 



ihlili 



ihlililililili 




Fig. 173. — Octagon Scale. 

of the tongue and is used for laying off lines to cut an 
"eight square" or octagon stick of timber from a square 
stick. Suppose ADBC in Fig. 172 is the butt of a stick of timber 10 
inches square. With dividers, take from the scale as many spaces (10) 
as there are inches in the width of the stock, and lay off points on both 
sides of A, B, G and D. Connect the points ab, cd, ef and gh. Dress 
off the corners to these lines and the stick will be octagonal. 

Angle Cuts for Polygons (Example). — For a figure of six sides, 

place along the edge of a board, 16%'' on the body, and 9%'' on the 

tongue of the square. Mark along the tongue. Saw six pieces of equal 

length, having this angle cut at each end of each piece, and the pieces 

will fit together to make a six sided figure, the size depending upon the 

length of the pieces. 

Tongue. 

12 

131/8 

9% 

8% 

7% 

— 6% 

5% 





Blade. 


4 sides 12 


5 ' 


' 18 


6 ' 


' — - 16% 


7 ' 


' — - 17% 


8 ' 


' 18 


9 ' 


' ____ 16-34 


10 ' 


' 18 



STEEL SQUARE 



99 



|ii{n|ii{iiiii|ii|ii|ii|ii|ii|ii|imi|ii|ii|ii|ii|ii|iijii|ii|ii|ii[ii|ii|ii|ii|u|ii|iijii|ii|ii|in^ 

Ii3 l|2 III l|o I9 ' la I7 'l« I5 I* I: 



)l''il'llllll'llllllllllllllMllll llllllllllllllllllllllllllllMllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll/illlMII 



ll|ii| i ill i | i im | i i | ii |iii i ng 



Fig. 175. — Bkace Measltee-Steel Square. 




^C3 

Fig. 174. — Brace Measure. ' 



Brace- Measure. — The 
Brace Measure table is 
along the center of the 
back of the tongue and gives the 
length of common braces. 




42 



42 



59.40 in the scale means that 



if the run is 42'' on the post, and the 
same on the beam, then the brace will 
be 59 40/100 inches, as shown in the 
diagram. (See Fig 174.) 



RAFTER CUTTING AND ROOF FRAMING. 




|ij^i|i|i|i^^i|i|i|i^iti|ig|i|l|l|l|i|l||j^l|l|l|l|l|l|l|^l|l|l|^^^ 



JJJL 



hl i l i 



^llllh 



17 09 
16 22 
24 33 

11% 



P*T JAN 22 1907 
100 



jIlLlLl 



Fig. 17G. — Rafter Table Steel Square. 



Rise. — The rise of the rafter is the distance found in following a 
plumb line from the center of the ridge to the level of the top of the 
plate. (See Fig. 177 and PO in Fig. 179.) The seeming discrepancy in 
the rise as shown in the two figures is brought about by the necessity 
of showing the exact vertex of the angle formed by the plate and the 
mid-line of the rafter. 

Run. — The run is the shortest horizontal distance from this plumb- 
line to the outer edge of the plate. It is one-half the span of the roof 
which is the same as the width of the building. (See Fig. 177 and 
PX in Fig. 179.) The diagonal from the outside point on the plate to 
the nearest point in the central line of the top of the ridge is the length 
of the common rafter. (See Fig. 177 and OX in Fig. 179.) 
10 



100 



SHOP WORK 




--Post 



Fig. 177. — Run and Rise — Common Rafter. 



Pitch. — ^The angle of incline of the common rafter is called the 
pitch of the roof. The most common rafter pitches are given in the fol- 
lowing table by the rise and run of the common rafter. 

Pitch. 

1/6 
1/4 
1/3 

5/12 
1/2 
5/8 
3/4 




Fig. 178. — Pitch of Roofs. 



STEEL SQUARE 



101 



To find the length of a common rafter by means of the rafter 
table, follow down the column headed by the graduation on the blade, 
which is the number of feet in the run, to the line having the desired 
pitch at the left end. The figures give the proper length. Following 
the table as explained will give the figures 14, 1, 8; or 14 feet, 1 and 
8/12 inches, the length of the rafter. 

/7- 




FiG. ITG.^RooF Frame. 




Rafter Cuts. — The rafter ends are 
cut to roof angles to rest respectively 
against the ridge and plate. The cut 
against the ridge is called the plumb 
cut ; the cut against the plate is called 
the heel cut. The rule given for find- 
ing plumb and heel cuts is to place the 
square upon the rafter so that a por- 
tion of one arm of the square repre- 
sents the run, and a portion of the, 
other arm, the rise, as in the follow- 
ing illustration: Mark at A for the 
plumb cut and at B for the heel cut. 
(See Fig. 180.) The table giving the 
lengths is stamped upon the square, but in actual practice it is neces- 
sary to deduct for one-half of the ridge-board, and to add for any 
projection beyond the plate for eaves. 

111%) Rafters. — The hip rafter, G in Fig. 179, represents the hypo- 
thenuse or diagonal of a right angled triangle, one side being the 
common rafter, and the other side that part of the plate lying between 
the foot of the hip rafter and the foot of the adjoining (common) 
rafter. The rise of the hip rafter is the same as that of the common 



Fig. ISO. — Pij:tmb and Heel of Raf- 



(a) plumb cut (b) heel cut 



102 



SHOP WORK 



rafter. The run of the hip rafter is the horizontal distance from the 
plumb-line of its rise to the outside of the plate at the foot of the hip 
rafter. If the pitch is the same on both sides of the hip rafter the 
run of the hip rafter is to the run of the common rafter as 17 is to 12. 
For 1/6 pitch, the common rafter run and rise are 12 and 4, while 
the hip rafter run and rise are 17 and 4. For the plumb and heel 
cuts of the hip rafter use the figures 17 and 4, 17 and 6, etc., the rise 
and run of the hip rafter. 

Plumb and Side Cuts. — It is often necessary to nail the plumb 
cut to a ridge. This will necessitate a side cut on the hip to fit the 
ridge. The following table will give the proper angle for the common 
pitches : 

Pitch. Body. Tongue. 

1/6 7 71/4 

1/4 15 16 

1/3 9 10 

5/12 13 15 

.1/2 8 11 

5/8 6 10 

3/4 11 16 



Lay off the top or plumb cut and then the side cut. Make one 
sawing do for both. Hip rafters should be cut in "rights and lefts" 
so that the side cuts will seat on the ridge. To find the length of the 
hip rafter, lay off on the blade of the square, the length of the common 
rafter (scaled to 1 ft. to the inch) and the distance between the foot 
of the hip to the first common rafter on the tongue of the square. 
Measure across and multiply by twelve. Deduction foi? thickness of 
ridge and extra length for overhang should be made. 

Valley Rafter. — The valley rafter, 
E in Fig. 179, is the hypothenuse of 
the right-angled triangle formed by 
the common rafter with the ridge, 
corresponding with the right-angled 
triangle formed by the hip rafter, 
common rafter and plate; therefore, 
the rules for the lengths and cuts for 
valley rafters are the same as for hip 
Fig. 181.— Side ctiTs of eaftkrs. rafters. The side cuts are also the 
A— Square set for side cut. ^^^ne as for hip rafters. 

B — Square set for plumb cut. 




STEEL SQUARE 103 

Jack and Cripple Rafters. — The jack rafters, F, in Fig. 179, are 
usually spaced either 16 or 24 inches apart, and, as they lie against 
the hip or valley and are equally spaced, the second will be twice as 
long as the first, the third three times as long as the first, and so on. 
The lengths for the shortest jack or cripples are given in the following 
table : 



16 inches on center. 


Pitch of roof. 


24 inches on center. 


16% inches 


1/6 


2 ft. 114, inches 


177/8 " 


1/4 


2 " 27/8 " 


191/4, " 


1/3 


2 " 47/8 " 


207/8 " 


5/12 


. 2 " ly^ " 


225/8 " 


1/2 


2 " 10 


2 ft. 1% inches 


5/8 


3 " 21/, " 


2 ••' 47/8 " 


3/4 


3 " 714 " 



The length of the jack and cripple rafters are given to the center 
of the hip or valley rafters. In using the foregoing table, make allow- 
ance for the thickness of the hip or valley rafters. A cripple rafter 
is one having "no foot," or no foot on the plate, as D in Fig. 179. 
Cripples run between the ridge and valley rafters, and sometimes be- 
tween hips and valleys. The cripple rafter's length is that of the jack 
rafter plus the length necessary for the bottom cut which is a plumb 
cut like the top. Top and bottom cuts for cripples are the same as 
the top cut for jack rafters. The side cuts at the hip and valley are 
the same as the side cuts for the jacks. The following table gives the 
proper figures for the side cuts of jacks and cripples: 

Pitch 
1/6 

1/4 

1/3 

5/12 

1/2 

5/8 

3/4 

All jacks and cripples should be cut in rights and lefts and allow- 
ance made on jacks for overhang for eaves. Deduction should be made 
from the foregoing scale for the thickness of the hip or valley rafters. 



Blade. 


Tongue. 


9 


91/2 


9 


10 


10 


12 


10 


13 


12 


17 


10 


16 


10 


18 



CHAPTER II 
SAWS 



The saw, in its different forms, is one of the most important tools 
for the wood worker. The three saws most cotamonly used, the rip 
saw, cross-cut saw, and back saw, are discussed in Part I, and only- 
special saws, the making of saws, saw setting and filing, and the care 
of saws are treated in this chapter. 



Special Handy Saw. — Fig. 182 shows 
a handy-saw, adopted by manual train- 
ing schools throughput the land, which 
has amply proved its worth. The han- 
dle acts on a pivot, and may be adjusted 
instantly for the use of either tooth. 
The blade is toothed on one side for 
cross cut and on one side for rip or 
dovetail sawing. 




Fig. 182. — Double Edgk Saw. 




Fig. 18.3. — Compass Saw 



Compass Saw. — The compass saw 
is used for miscellaneous sawing. As 
the nature of the work for which 
compass saws are used consists of 
about as much cross-cutting as of 
ripping, and as a cross-cut saw will 

rip better than a rip saw will cross-cut, it is apparent that the shape 
of the teeth should be between the two. These saws are all ground 
thinner at the back side, the same as any hand saw. (See Fig. 183.) 

Scroll and Web Saws. — Scroll and web saws are ground, filed and 
set in the same manner, and should have pitch, according to the work 
to be done. If more ripping than cross-cutting is done, as in large 
felloes, more pitch is given that in the compass saws, and vice versa, 
though these saws are almost universally run with a rip-saw tooth and 
have very little variation in the pitch. 

104 



SAWS 



105 




Fig. 184. — Butcher Saw. 




Fig. 185.-vHack Saw. 



Butcher Saws. — Butcher saws 
are used for cutting bones. The 
pitch and number of points are 
about the same as a fme tooth hand 
saw for medium hard wood, but 
are filed straight through without 

fleam, or bevel, to tooth, with light even set, the same as in fine hand 

saws. (See Fig. 184.) 

Hack Saws. — Hack saws are used 
for cutting metal, such as brass, iron 
or untempered steel, and should have 
a little finer teeth than the average 
butcher saw. They are so hard that 
none but the very best metal saw file 

will sharpen them. Like the butcher saw, the filing must be straight 
through with no bevel. (See Fig. 185.) 

Band Saws. — Band saws are used 
for machine scroll work and for band 
saw mills, and consist of continuous 
bands of steel running over two 
wheels like a belt. The large band 
saws used in saw mills are sometimes 
sharpened on both edges. (See Fig. 
186.) 

Circular Saws. — Circular saws are 
either rip or cross-cut saws. They 
are always mounted on an arbor and 
are usually power driven. Circular 

Fig. 186. — Band Saw Blade. 

saws are used in cabinet shops and 
saw mills. (See Fig. 187.) 





Fig. 188.— Coping Saw. 



Coping Saws. — Coping saws are 
used for hand scroll and grill work. 
(See Fig. 188.) 




Fig. 187. — Cibculae Saw. 




106 . SHOP WOKK 

Cylinder Saws. — Cylinder saws are used for sawing spheres and 
discs. There are many other saws on the market for special work. 

Miter Box. — A miter box consists 
of one solid casting, used as a base, 
and two uprights, used as guides for 
the saw, which works on a pivot, and 
on an arc with graduations. The up- 
rights swing back and forth on this 
arc, at any angle between 90 degrees 
Fig. 189.— Miteu Box. and 45 degrees ; however, with a spe- 

cial attachment, the angle range is 
much greater. This box is used in cutting miters, picture frames, 
mouldings of all styles, and in cutting kerfs to certain depths. (See 
Fig. 189.) 

SAW MAKING. 

Saw Construction. — There is perhaps no tool in a woodworking 
kit that is used as constantly as a saw. It is important, therefore, 
that the saws used should be of the very best quality in order that 
the workman may be able to do the greatest amount of work with the 
least exertion. From the very first, saw manufacturers had great 
difficulty in obtaining steel of uniform quality, free from flaws ; having 
spared no expense in bringing the saw to its present state of perfec- 
tion, this difficulty finally has been overcome. High grade saws are 
not made of high carbon steel, as is the general belief among wood- 
workers. They are put through a process that makes them flexible, 
and therefore they can be coiled like a clock spring without any injury 
whatever. Many saw manufacturers claim that they have a "secret 
process" by which they make their particular brand of saw flexible, and 
yet serviceable. Since the "processes" are secrets, no attempt will 
be made to divulge any "secrets." 

Material. — The Disston Saw Works was the first concern to man- 
ufacture saws from the raw material to the finished article. Its crucible 
steel plant was the first establishment to produce saw steel in America, 
and Disston saws are considered standard everywhere. The silver 
steel saw, manufactured by the Atkins Saw Works, is one of the 
highest grade saws on the market. Its steel is also prepared by a 
special process. 

Process of Manufacture. — All steel for saws is rolled, then trimmed 
under shears, and cut into blanks, either for straight or hollow back 
saws. The next operation is that of cutting the teeth, which is done 
by machines of special design, the blanks being fed by hand. 



SAWS 107 

Temvpering. — The saw is then placed in a hardening furnace which 
is, at this time, generally heated by fuel, oil or gas; it is then taken 
out and plunged, edge first, into a special hardening bath. 

Smithing. — Smithing is a process about which very little is known 
and which is not used in the manufacture of a great many cheaper 
saws, because it does not show. It does not add to the appearance of 
the saw. In the operation of smithing, the saw is tensioned so that 
the tight spots in the steel are opened up, permitting the saw to run 
true to the line. A boy shakes a thin piece of tin to hear it rattle. 
This is because certain portions of the metal have full spots . that are 
looser than others. Looking across it, you will find ridges and hol- 
lows. Smithing removes these conditions and makes the saw run true. 

Grinding. — The blades of saws are ground by taper grinding. 
The finished blades are about nineteen gauge, or 3/64 of an inch (scant) 
thick along the entire tooth edge, one gauge thinner at the butt on the 
back, and four gauge thinner on the back at the point. They gradually 
taper throughout the entire blade toward the thinnest part. This, 
scientifically, renders them stiff, but gives the blade clearance, permit- 
ting them to drop easily into the cut without binding and enabling the 
saw to run free and easy with but little set. 

Final Touches. — The saws then pass through the etching room, 
where the name and brand of the manufacturer are put on, then they 
are ready for the setting of the teeth. Each tooth is set by one or 
more strikes of the hammer. The teeth are then filed. This is done 
after the saw is set, so that no damage will be done to the teeth. The 
saw is then handled and ready for use. 

Vanadium S'aws.— Vanadium is an ore found in South America. 
It was found in small quantities at first, which made it impossible to 
use it in the manufacture of steel for high class work; but in recent 
years vast quantities have been found. It can be mined at a price 
which enables the steel manufacturers to use it in the manufacture of 
steel and for almost any kind of work. The Vanadium saw is a 
product of this ore. The element vanadium has, in fact, almost revolu- 
tionized the saw business. 



GENERAL INFORMATION. 

Saw Parts. — The elements of a saw tooth are its face or front, 
point, back and gullet. The channel cut by the saw is called the kerf. 



108 SHOP WORK 

The side inclination of alternate teeth is called set. The heel or butt 
of the saw is the end nearest the handle, and the opposite end is called 
the toe or point. Saws are designated according to the number of 
saw points to the inch. 

4 Points 



4-Vz Points 



5 Points 




8 Points 

(/VVV\A/WWV\^^^ 



9 Points 



11. Points 

Fig. 190. — Size of Teeth. 
(There is always one more point than there are teeth.) 

Figures 191 and 192 show the method of laying out rip saw teeth 
and cross-cut saw teeth. The angles for the teeth remain the same 
as in these figures for all sizes of teeth. 

Rip saws usually have one less point to the inch at the heel than 
at the toe, and are listed according to the number of points at the 
heel. The number of points to the inch of the saw is usually stamped 
on the butt. The length of a tooth is its height from base to point. 
The pitch, rake or hook is the angle of the cutting edge of the tooth 



SAWS 



109 



to the line of points. The bevel or fleam is the angle of the front or 
back of the tooth to the side. The crown of the saw is the slight out- 
ward curve of the line of the points. 





Fig. 191. — Rip-Saw Teeth, Showing 
One-Half Pitch. 



Fig. 192. — Geoss-Cut Teeth, Showing 
One-Fourth Pitch. 



=^ 



=^ 



=fc=i 




Fig. 193. — Paets of Teeth. 
(a) front or tbroat ; (b) back; (cd) pitch of tooth; (e) set. 

Sharpening. — Sharpening or fitting a 
saw consists of jointing, setting and 
filing the saw teeth so that the saw will 
cut fast, clean and smooth with the 
least expenditure of power. Jointing 
is the process by which the points of 
the saw teeth are made to lie in the same 
line. Setting is the process by which 
the teeth are alternately set to the right 
and left. Filing is the process of put- 
ting the proper shape, rake and fleam 
on the tooth. The saw should first be 
secured in a saw clamp, or held in a vise between two strips of board. 
(See Fig. 194.) First, joint the saw by running lengthwise lightly 
over the points of the teeth with a jointer or file until the teeth are all in 
the same line and have a slight crown. Second, set the saw. The depth 
of set should not be greater than half the length of the tooth ; if it is 
greater, the body of the saw will be sprung or the tooth so weakened 




Fig. 194. — Saw Clamp. 



110 SHOP WORK 

as to cause it to be easily broken out. The width of set is determined 
by the work. For average work, about 1/100 of an inch on each side 
is sufficient ; for hard work or dry wood, a little less ; and for green, 
wet or soft woods, a little more. In any case, the saw should be given 
just enough set to clear. The best way is to go down one side of 
the saw and set the alternate teeth to one side, then, reversing the 
saw, set the remaining teeth to the other side. Care should be taken 
that the teeth are set in the same direction as they were originally. 
The set should be uniform, as the proper working of a saw depends 
on the setting. A sharp saw improperly set will not cut, but a dull 
saw properly set will. A hand saw should be set several times be- 
tween filings. Third, file the saw. The saw should be filed from heel 
to toe, with a three-cornered file. No one saw will do all kinds of 
work, and a saw should be carefully selected for each class of work. 
The manner in which the teeth are filed should be noted when the saw 
is bought, and followed whenever the saw is sharpened. 

Sharpening Rip Saws. — A slitting or ripping saw has its cutting 
edge at right angles to the fibre of the wood, severing it in one place, 
the throat wedging out the piece. A 4-point rip saw for soft wood, 
or a 5-point rip saw for medium hard wood should have rake in 
front and be filed straight across, filing one-half the teeth from each 
side after setting. For ripping hard and cross-grained woods, a finer 
tooth rip saw, with the teeth filed slightly beveled, is needed. (See 
Fig. 184.) 

Finishing. — After the saw is set and filed, it should be laid on a 
flat surface and the sides of the teeth lightly rubbed over with an 
old file or oil stone to remove any feather edges. To sum up: The 
same principles of dressing apply throughout, whether the saw is 
coarse or fine toothed. The teeth on saws used for soft wood should 
have little or no pitch, should have a fleam back and front, and a 
large set; those for medium hard woods should have more pitch, less 
fleam on the back, and medium set; for hard woods, still more pitch, 
no fleam on the back, and a small set. Too much pitch and too heavy 
a set are bad, for they will cause a saw to take hold so keenly that 
frequently it hangs up suddenly in the thrust and kinks or breaks the 
blade. The usual amount of pitch is 60 degrees. When a cross-cut 
hand saw is properly fitted, a needle can be slid along the groove 
between the tooth edges. 

Sharpening a Two-Man^Cross Cut Saw. — In sharpening a two- 
man cross-cut saw, first, pass a jointer over the teeth until it touches 
the shortest cutting tooth. Second, file down the raker teeth until they 
are the proper length. For very hard and dry wood the raker should 



SAWS 



111 




Fig. 195.- 



-Teeth of Two-Man Ckoss-Cut 
Saw. 



be 1/100 inch shorter than the cut- 
tmg teeth; for hard, green wood, 
1/64 inch, and for green wood, 
1/32 inch. Third, file each tooth 
to a keen cutting edge, taking 
care to preserve the original form 
and size of the teeth. The amount 
of bevel to the tooth depends upon 
the class of work to be done. Hard wood requires less bevel than soft 
wood. Fourth, the angle of the set should extend about 1/4 inch down 
from their point. The amount of set will depend on the class of work 
and the manner in which the saw is ground. Thin back saws require 
about 1/100 inch set on each side of the saw ; straight back saws, about 
1/50 inch. 

Sharpening Circular Saws, — In the usual gauges (7, 8 and 9) , of 
large circular saws, that is, those used in the ordinary manner on the 
average feed and timber, 3/64 inch on each side of the saw is about 
the least set that should be used. Hard, dry and frozen timber requires 
less set; very soft, wet or green timber, more. Thin saws require as 
much set as thick ones. See that the 
saw is round, and if not round, joint 
and file the teeth until they are all of 
the same length, shape and size. If a 
saw sharpener is not available, the 
jointing can be done by holding a stone 
against the saw teeth while the saw is 
revolving at a moderate speed, taking 
care not to grind beyond the length of 
the shortest tooth. After jointing, file 
the teeth to a sharp point, using a gauge 
or templet, or, if none is handy, file as 
near to the original shape and size of 
the tooth as can be remembered. Next 
set the teeth about 1/16 inch alternately 
to each side of the saw. Then file the 
teeth straight through or square to the 
side of. the saw, on the fronts, and bevel 

each alternate tooth slightly on the back. If fit properly, a circular 
saw will saw easily and true until dull. It should be re-sharpened before 
it pulls hard, runs askew or heats up. A saw should be sharpened from 
two to four times in a full day's run. A saw properly set will stand 
from two to five filings before it requires resetting. 




Fig. 196. — Teeth of Kip Saw 
( Cikculak ) . 




Fig. 197. 



-Teeth of Cut-Off Saw 
(Circular). 



112 



SHOP WORK 




Fig. 198. — Teeth of Band Saw. 



Cut-Off Saivs. — Cut-off saws are 
dressed the same as rip saws, except 
that the teeth are given more bevel, 
both front and back. Bevel only a 
small portion of the tooth from the 
point and dress the remainder of the 

tooth and the gullet straight across, rounding out the gullet with either 

a gummer or a file. 

Sharpening Band Saws. — After a band saw has been tensioned, it 
should be fitted. The setting and filing of the teeth is practically the 
same as a circular saw. The amount of set for a 14 gauge saw should 
not exceed 1/32 inch on each side. The less set the better. Band saws 
should be resharpened frequently, a two and one-half hour's run being 
about the limit. 

History of Saw Sets. — Saws were first set by a hammer and anvil, 
or by a hammer and punch, but these methods left no two teeth at the 
same angle, or depth of set. Besides, the frequent hammerings injured 
the teeth, and, if the steel was soft, sprung it so that the teeth dulled 
quickly ; if hard, crystallized it so that 
they broke out easily. The notched 
plate saw set sprung the saw blade 
and set the teeth in a curve, and the 
chief fault of the lever saw sets was 
a lack of strength. The modern type 
of saw sets dates from 1878, when 
Charles Morrill invented a saw set, 
in which the power applied to the han- 
dles was multiplied and transmitted by a cam and without loss to the 
plunger. This saw set was an instant success, displacing all other 
types. In the Morrill saw sets the principal of com- 
pression is employed, making the steel stronger 
and more homogenous. (See Fig. 199.) 

Use of Saiv Sets. — Set the number on the anvil 
of the saw set to the point of the plunger corre- 
sponding to the number of saw tooth points to the 
inch. For example, if there are seven points, turn 
seven on the anvil to the point of the plunger. 
Then, placing the saw set on the saw, turn up the 
gauge screw until the desired amount of set is 
obtained. Lock the gauge screw and proceed to 
set the saw. (See Fig. 191.) 




Fig. 199.— Saw Set. 




Fig. 200.— Saw Set 

Showing Degree 

OF Set. 



CHAPTER III 
FASTENING DEVICES. 

Nails. — Probably no other fastening device has passed through as 
great an evolution in the methods of manufacture, of materials involved, 
and of general shapes as ordinary nails. Originally, nails were cut 
from metal sheets by hand, and headed in a vise; an output of a few 
hundred was a competent day's work. Today nails are machine made. 
A steel wire is fed into an automatic machine which cuts the proper 
lengths, heads and points the wire into a perfect nail at such speed that 
the cost of the nail is greatly reduced and is no longer a luxury, but 
the most common of fastening devices. 

Classification of Nails. — Nails are spoken of as "8-penny", "6- 
penny", etc. "Penny" is supposed to be a corrupt form of pound. An 
"eight-penny" nail means that a thousand nails of that particular kind 
and size weigh eight pounds; "six-penny" weigh six pounds per thou- 
sand nails, etc. This is an approximation only. Nails are classified 
according to the modes of manufacturing, size and use, as well as the 
material from which they are made. The nails most common to the 
journeyman are the common, casing, and finish nails, although these 
types are modified to meet all classes of work. 

Common Nails. — The common nail is made of the larger wire, with 
a heavy flat head. It is stiff, with a wonderful pulling capacity, which 

adapts it for many classes of rough 
work. The larger sizes, that is, 
from 12d (or penny) to 60d, are 

Fig. 201.-COMMON NAiu ^^jj^^ ^^.y.^^^ ^j^jj^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^ 

ones from 3d to 6d are called box, 
shingle or lath nails. Like the finish and the casing 'nails, the common 
nail is cylindrical in shape, which minimizes the splitting tendency. 
(See Fig. 201.) 

Casing Nails. — The casing nail is made and classified in the same 

^ -^--. -^_ _. _,^ __,_^,„^ fashion as the common nail. The 

lipi iiiTiiiiiiM — ^^ rr^mm- ^^^j difference lies in the construc- 

FiG. 202.— Casing Nail. tion of the head. Casing nails have 

113 



114 



SHOP WORK 



G^jwMMm 



Fig. 203. — Finish Nail. 



small, conical heads which adapt them for interior finish, floor laying 
and cabinet construction. (See Fig. 202.) 

Finish Nails. — The finish nail is of finer gauge wire than the cas- 
ing nail, has a very small head, and is used in cabinet work or any 

class of work where the heads should 
^ be "set" or where there is a likeli- 
hood of splitting the wood. By set- 
ting a nail is meant to drive the 
head below the surface of the wood 
so that the head may be finished over. (See Fig. 203.) 

Brads. — Any nails of the finish type that range from 14 iiich to 
2 inches in length are referred to as brads. They are used a great 
deal in trimming cabinet work with moulding and in any light work 
where there is a tendency to split the wood. 

Wrought Nails. — Wrought nails are made of commercially pure 
iron. They are soft and may be clinched easily, which makes them in 
demand for car and barn door construction, as well as for hanging 
strap hinges. 

Cut Nails. — Cut nails are cut from sheet metal and have two 
tapering sides. They are strong and will carry heavy loads, but will 
split the wood if not driven with the 
parallel sides of the nail parallel to 
the grain of the wood. They are 
generally used in the framing of fig. 204.— cut nail. 

heavy timbers and in heavy con- 
struction such as the building of wooden bridges, derricks, etc. (See 
Fig. 204.) 

Standard Gauges. — Nails are seldom bought by the gauge of the 
wire, but it is well to know that there is a standard gauge and that the 




^•••••••••« 

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 
Fig. 205. — Steel Wire Gauge. 



FASTENING DEVICES 



115 



diameter of the wire from which the nail is made is given in number^ 
which refer to the standard gauge. However, one must not forget that 
the gauge of the wire for nails is different from that for screws, in that 
the smaller the number of the gauge of the wire from which the nail 
is made the larger the nail is in diameter. (See Fig. 205.) 



STANDARD STEEL WIRE NAILS. 



Approx. No. to Lb. 



Size 


Len^h 


Common 


Finish 


Casing 


Fine 


2d 


1 inch 


876 


1351 


1010 


1351 


3d 


1^ inch 


568 


807 


635 


778 


4d 


1^ inch 


316 


584 


473 


473 


5d 


If inch 


271 


500 


406 





6d 


2 inch 


181 


309 


236 





7d 


21 inch 


161 


238 


210 


■- 


8d 


2| inch 


106 


189 


145 





lOd 


3 inch 


69 


121 


94 





12d 


Si inch 


63 


113 


87 





16d 


3^ inch 


49 


90 


71 






Screws.— Like nails, screws are made by automatic machinery. 
The best screws have their threads cut, the cheaper ones have their 
threads made by the rolling process. The ordinary wood screws are 
put in cardboard boxes, one gross to the box, and in this way they reach 
the consumer. 

Sizes of Screws. — The size of screws is indicated by their length 
in inches or fractions thereof, and by the diameter of the wire below the 
head. The diameter is expressed by a number which refers to the 
standard gauge. The size of the screw gauge ranges from 0, which 
represents a diameter of less than 1/16 of an inch, to number 30, the 
latter representing a diameter somewhat greater than 7/16 of an inch. 
The size of a screw two inches long and 1/4 inch in diameter should be 
written, "2 inches. No. 15". However, screws of any length are made 
in many gauges. 

Kinds of Screws. — Screws may be had either in bright, blue, or 

brass, although other finishes are not uncommon, and with flat or round 

heads. As a rule the shape of the head indicates the use for which the 

screw is intended. Flat-head screws are either countersunk and fin- 

11 



116 



SHOP WORK 




A B 

Fig. 206. — Machine Screws. 
a — Flat Head ; &— Oval Plumb- 
er's Head; c — Fillister Head. 






ABC D 

Fig. 207. — Wood Screws. 
a — Drive Screw (Round Head) ; & — French Head 
Screw ; c — Flat Head Screw ; d — Round Head. 



ished over, or are placed 
where they will not show, 
while round-headed screws 
are used in cabinet construc- 
tion where the heads will be 
visible. (See Figs. 206 and 207.) 

Lag Screws. — A form of screw in very common use in framing 
heavy timbers and in anchoring machinery is the lag screw. It has 
threads like the ordinary screw, but has a square head which permits 
it to be driven with a wrench. 

Corrugated Steel Fasteners. — Corrugated steel fasteners are used 

in pattern shops to hold the split patterns together during the process 

of turning. They are also used to lace joints, 
as in the bottom side of table, counter tops, etc. 
As the name indicates, they are made of thin 
sheet steel. This sheet has one edge sharpen.ed ; 
it is then corrugated and cut into lengths. The 

Fig. 208.— Corrugated STEELwidth of the steel, as well as the number of cor- 
fasteners. rugations, determines the size of the corru- 

gated steel fastener. A l^ inch No. 6 would 

mean a fastener that is 1/4 i^^ch wide and six corrugations in length. 

(See Fig. 208.) 

Tacks. — Tacks are used to fasten cardboard, leather, sheet metal, 

or any thin material to wood. They 
are made by machine and of many 
materials. Many tacks have fancy 
composition or metallic heads for 
use in upholstery work. Originally, 
Fig. 209.— Tacks. the size of tacks was designated by 





FASTENING DEVICES 11'7 

2 oz., etc., which meant that a thousand tacks of that particular size 
weighed two ounces. (See Fig. 209.) 



SIZE OF TACKS. 



1 


oz. 


2 


oz. 


3 


oz. 


4 


oz. 


6 


oz. 


8 


oz. 


10 


oz. 



3/16 Inch Long 
1/4 Inch Long 
3/8 Inch Long 
7/16 Inch Long 
1/2 Inch Long 
9/16 Inch Long 
5/8 Inch Long 

Glue.— The making of glue and the process of gluing are two dis- 
tinct vocations, yet they are so dependent on each other that, without 
a good knowledge of both, it would be very easy to fail m makmg a 
good glue joint. 

Glue Material— The materials used in making glue are equalled in 
number only by the purposes for which it may be used. The most com- 
mon materials used are hides, horns, hoofs, bones and fish. Bones, 
hides, horns and hoofs accumulate at large packing plants These 
scraps are washed in lime water, then boiled and skimmed. When the 
liquid reaches a certain stage, it is strained, drawn off, cooled m 
moulds, and then dried on nets. In this stage, i. e., in flakes or the 
flakes pulverized, it usually reaches the consumer; however, there is a 
great demand for a glue that is constantly ready for use, and hence 
the need for liquid glue. 

Liquid Glue.— The flakes and pulverized glue must be changed into 
a liquid state. To do this a double boiler is used. The glue is placed 
in the vessel in which it is to be prepared and cold water is added, usu- 
ally in the proportions of two parts of water to one of glue. However, 
no definite proportions can be given, as glue is worked at so many vary- 
ing degrees of heat and the evaporation of water is so rapid that it 
would be impossible to secure the proper formula for a good workmg 
consistency without data as to the grades of glue, temperature during 
the process of cooking, etc. After the glue has soaked m cold water 
for several hours, the vessel is placed in the water jacket of the double 
boiler. The water jacket should be about two-thirds full of water. 
The temperature of the water in the jacket should be raised and it m 
turn heats the contents of the inner vessel. Care should always be 
taken not to scorch the glue by permitting the water jacket to boil 
dry, as this makes the glue absolutely worthless as an adhesive medium. 



118 



SHOP WORK 




Fig. 210. — Glue Heatek. 



The glue should all go into solution, should 
be hot, not too thick or too thin, but 
should drip from a brush in a fine stream 
to be about the right consistency to de- 
velop the maximum of efficiency. Glue 
deteriorates after it has been heated. In 
fact, it loses about 90 per cent of its 
strength, that is, its value to work, after 
it has been melted and has stood over 
night; and it also lowers the quality of 
the fresh glue that may be added to it. 
(See Fig. 210.) 



Glue Joints. — The most important things necessary for the proper 
holding of glue joints are: (1) fit; (2) freshly heated, properly pre- 
pared, good glue; and (3) freedom of the surfaces from grease. The 
first item is the most important of all. The fit of the two surfaces must 
be very carefully made, and the surface of the joint must be free from 
grease, as grease is the greatest enemy of glue. Do not use a thick 
solution for joint work. It congeals quickly and naturally will fail to 
penetrate the pores of the wood, giving a weak joint as a result. In 
every case the glue must be well worked into the pores of the wood with 
a brush, much in the same manner as a coat of paint. Heating of the 
wood will do no good, as the hot wood will absorb the water of the glue 
solution, leaving an inadhesive coat of glue at the surface of the joint. 
This will hold only a limited length of time. The spreading of the glue 
should be done as quickly as possible, and in a warm room free from 
draught. It is important that the glue be at the proper temperature 
when applied, as the molecules are then vibrating at their maximum 
speed, and will therefore penetrate better into the pores of the wood, 
thus making a better joint. It is best to test the pieces first, to make 
sure that they will go together, and to have all the clamps and hand 
screws ready that there will be no need of delay in placing the pieces 
under pressure after the glue is applied. The glued pieces should be 
left under pressure of the clamps about twenty-four hours. 



CHAPTER IV 




Fig. 211. — A Bkace. 



BRACES. 

Parts of Brace.— The parts of a 
brace are the following : 

1. End of chuck. 

2. Section of chuck and ratchet. 

3. Handle. 

4. Bit shanks. 

5. Head or cap. 
E Screw. 
F Cup washer. 

Carpenter's Bit Brace.-The carpenter's bit brace is so modified in 
form that it is impossible to make a sweeping statement as to what a 
b?t brace really is, unless it be described as a tool to gm^e and drive a 
wood-boring tool by hand. Probably the oldest and simplest form of a 
bitbrace was the "Fiddle Bow", a form of brace that is very seldom 
seen yet one that is efficient for piercing small holes m light work. As 
the name indicates, it is made like a bow, the string of which is wound 
around the shank of the bit, and, as the bow is pulled back and forth 
?he bit is rotated, thus giving it cutting action. Probably the mos 
common type of carpenter's bit brace is the one m which the chuck and 
cap are in axial alignment. A portion of the distance betw^^^^th^^J^^ 
in an offset-a cranked handle-and has a ratchet constructed between 
the chuck and cranked handle. By clamping the shank of the bit m 
a chuck and holding the axial line of the brace frame at the angle 
according to which the hole is to be bored into the P^e^^; ^^ is an easy 
matter to rotate the handle, thus forcing the spur of the bit to pull 
itself into the wood. 

Chuck.— VsuaWy, the chuck is constructed of two tongues held at 
their inner ends by springs, and coned at their outer ends. There is a 
corresponding cone in the threaded sleeve, so that screwing up the 
sleeve firmly grips the tool shank and holds it true and independent of 
the squared end which fits into the inner portion of the tongue that 

drives it. 

119 



120 



SHOP WORK 



Ratchet. — The ratchet enables the operator to use the brace in a 
corner or any other place where it is impossible to get a full swing 
with the cranked handle. The ratchet can be set so that the chuck 
can be operated either to the right or to the left, or as an ordinary brace 
without the ratchet. This adjustment is accomplished by making a 
portion of a revolution of the sleeve which is between the chuck and 
the cranked handle. , 

Cranked Handle Swing. — The offset, or cranked handle, is the por- 
tion that determines the size of the brace. If the offset is small, it will 
take more power to revolve the bit in the wood than if the offset is 
large. The swing of the brace is equal to twice the length of the offset 
of the cranked handle, or equivalent to the diameter of the circle 
described by revolving the cranked handle. 

Cwp. — The cap is in alignment with the chuck and is used to guide 
the bit, as well as to supply a suitable point to apply pressure in the 
driving of drills, or bits without a spur. 



SPECIAL FORMS OF BRACES. 

Reciprocating Drill. — The recipro- 
cating drill affords an interesting 
study, in that it has no cranked han- 
FiG. 212.— ejecipeocating deill. die, but operates a wood piercing 

tool by forcing a handle down a 
helical groove in the stem of the tool. (See Fig. 212.) 

Breast Drills. — Breast drills, 
while designed for use in metal, 
offer another mode of driving bits. 
They are operated by a cranked 
handle attached to a bevel gear 
which, in turn, meshes with an- 
other bevel gear, attached to, and 
in a plane at right angles to, the 
spindle of the drill. (See Fig. 213.) 




Fig. 213. — Breast Drill. 



CHAPTER V 
AUGER BITS 

Boring Tools. — Tools used for making holes in wood and enlarg- 
ing holes in metal are termed boring tools; while those for metals, 
except the tools for enlarging holes, are termed drills. 

Cutting Action. — Wood-boring 
tools must have their edges so 
shaped that they will sever the fiber 
of the wood before dislodging it; 
otherwise the cutting edges will 
wedge themselves in the fiber. This 
is accomplished in cutting across 
the grain of the wood in two ways ; 
either, by severing the fiber around 
the walls of the hole and in a line 
parallel to the axial line of the bor- 
ing tool, and removing it afterward 
with a second cutting edge at a 
right angle to the axis of the bor- 
ing tools; or else, by employing a 
cutting edge curved in its length, so 
as to begin to cut at the center and 
operate on the walls of the hole, 
gradually enlarging it, as in the 
operation of the gimlet bit. 



Manufacture, — ^There are many 
auger bits on the market, all of 
which are of high-grade steel, prop- 
erly designed, forged and tempered, 
each having its distinctive features, 
which adapt it either to general 
or special work. It is difficult, therefore, to individualize and say that 
one bit is better than another. There are varous ways of manufactur- 
ing auger bits, but perhaps the most common is the method of band 

twisting. 

121 




Fig. 214. — Cutting Action of a Bit. 




122 - SHOP WORK 

Head, Nib, Lip and Spur. — The steel selected for bits is forged 

under heavy trip hammers and then twisted into the desired shape. 

This is followed by the heading process, that is, the 

forming of the nibs, lips and spur. The nibs serve, 

while the bit is revolving in the piece of wood, as a 

pair of knives, in that they sever the fibre around the 

walls of the hole. The lips are like a pair of revolv- 

FiG. 215.— Pitch op j^g chisels and lift the severed portion of wood out of 

Spite. ^j^^ hole; the spur pulls the bit into the piece being 

bored. (See Fig. 215.) 

Sizes. — Auger bits are measured in sixteenths of an inch, and the 
numerator of the fraction is stamped upon the shank; that is, a half- 
inch bit IS stamped 8, the denominator, expressed in sixteenths, being 
implied. Gimlets are measured in thirty-seconds of an inch, and drills 
in thirty-seconds and sixty-fourths; in each case the denominator, ex- 
pressed in thirty-seconds and sixty-fourths, is implied as in auger bits. 

Resharpening of Auger Bits. — Care should be taken in filing auger 
bits not to change the cutting angles of the nibs and lips. The nibs 
should be filed on the inside and the lips only on the side toward the 
shank. 

Shanks. — Different classes of work demand different shapes of bit 
shanks. General carpenter's work requires a square, tapering shank 
suitable for clamping in a brace jaw. Round shanks are used exten- 
sively for power boring machines. Nut shanks are used to fasten wood 
handles to bits. This kind of bit is used in framing green timbers. 

Dowel and Ship Bits. — Bits are made to suit the requirements of 
the work to be done. A cabinet worker heeds a short bit for dowel 
work, and hence the dowel bit has been devised. Dowel bits are usually 
short and range from l^ to I/2 iiich in diameter. A shipbuilder needs 
a longer bit than the ordinary commercial bit; accordingly, he is sup- 
plied with the ship auger, which is long and may be used in any stock 
diameter. 

Bit Extension. — It is often nec- 
essary to bore a deep hole with a 
short bit. To do this, an extension, fig. 216.— bit extension. 

which is similar to the shank of a 

carpenter's bit on one end, and has a bit chuck to receive the tongue of 
the bit on the other, is used. (See Fig. 216.> 



AUGER BITS 



123 




Fig. 217. — Irwin Bit. 



Fig. 21S. — Russell Jennings Bit. 



Fig. 211). — Foed Bit. 



Irwin Bit. — The Irwin bit is 
sometimes called the solid center bit. 
It is a fast borer, having a coarse 
pitch spur, and may be used for most 
classes of ordinary work. (See Fig. 
217.) 

Russell Jennings Bit. — The Rus- 
sell Jennings bit is a band twisted bit 
that may be used in all classes of or- 
dinary work. This bit, like the Ir- 
win, is a double cutter, having two 
nibs and two lips. (See Fig. 218.) 

Ford Bit. — The Ford bit differs 
from most auger bits in that it has 
but one lip and one nib. Its spur has 
a coarse pitch, hence it is a fast cut- 
ter. It bores well in the end grain of 
wood. (See Fig. 219.) 

Fostner Bit. — The Fostner bit is 
fundamentally different from the 
twisted bit. It must be fed by force, 
as it has no spur. It is guided by its 
rim and hence it will bore almost any 
arc of a circle, regardless of knots, 
grain, etc. It is a slow borer but has 
no splitting tendencies. The Fost- 
ner bit is used in pattern making 
shops, for mortising, veneers, fancy 
scroll, and most classes of special 
work. (See Figs. 220 and 221.) 

Expansion Bit. — The expansion bit may be 
said to have a compound head. It has a loose 
cutter — a combination of a nib and a lip — that 
slides in a slot, perpendicular to the axis of the 
shank. By sliding the cutter toward the center 
of the bit or away from it, the bit has a range 
of many size holes. Another bit of this type 
has a screw feed cutter which prevents the cut- 
ter from slipping while cutting through, thus 
Fig. 222.— Expansion Bit. avoiding a tapering hole. (See Fig. 222.) 




124 



SHOP WORK 



Fig. 223. — Gimlet Bit. 



Gimlet Bit. — A gimlet bit is 
used in piercing wood for screws and 
nails, and for boring end grain in 
light pieces where there is danger of 
splitting the wood. (See Fig. 223.) 



Counter and Gauge Sinks. — 
There are many special tools fitted 
with bit shanks to be driven with a 
bit brace that do not bore wood, but 
are termed bits. The counter sink. 



fitummmaiiumimimmium 



^ 



Fig. 224. — Counter Sink. 




Fig. 225. — Coxintek Sink 
With Gauge At- 
tached. 



They are so con- 



which is one of these special tools, is fitted with 
a square tapering shank and has a fluted coni- 
cal point, with an included angle, usually of 60 
degrees, on the opposite end. This bit is used 
in countersinking recesses for the reception of 
flat screw heads. The conical head of the screw 

seats in the recess cut out by the counter sink. (See Fig. 224.) Fig. 

225 shows a sink with a gauge attached. 

Reamers. — Reamers of all types are used as bits, 
structed as to enlarge a hole by shearing its walls. 

Screw Drivers. — The screw driver bit is one of the most common 
cools driven by a brace. It is forged similar to the ordinary hand screw 
driver, except that its shank is fitted for a brace instead of a handle. 

Spoke Pointers, Fore Augers, Hollow Augers 
and Dowel Sharpeners. — Spoke Pointers, fore au- 
gers, hollow augers and dowel sharpeners are used 
in carriage and wagon shops. As the name indi- 
cates, they are so constructed as to point spokes 
and cut around the end of a stick leaving a round 
tenon. Fore augers are used in reducing large spokes to smaller sized 
tenons. (See Fig. 226.) 




J\g. 226. — Dowel, 
Shabpenee. 



CHAPTER VI 



ABRASIVES 



Grind Stones. — The material for grindstones comes from some of 
the large sandstone quarries, and the varying thickness of the strata 
makes it possible to secure many thicknesses for grindstones. 

Composition. — The sandstone best suited for abrasive purposes is 
that which is composed of sharp quartz sand, bonded in a lime cement 

or a silicate bond,, of such matter and strength 
that it will yield the particles of sand that 
have become smooth by friction, and expose 
angular grains. These stones are cut intq cir- 
cular forms, mounted and driven toward the 
operator by hand or motive power. They are 
run in water, which acts as an agent for car- 
rying off the heat generated by the friction of 
the stone and tool. The water also serves an- 
other purpose, that of keeping the pores of 
the stone open; otherwise the stone would be- 
come glazed and smooth which would seri- 
ously reduce the cutting efficiency, as well as 
increase the liability of burning or drawing 
the temper of the tool. Stones should not 
stand partly in the water, as water softens 
the stone, and the wearing of the softened portion will naturally be 
more rapid than the rest. This uneven attrition will throw the stone 
out of true and make it almost impossible to do a good job of grinding. 
(See Fig. 227.) 

Truing. — Probably the most 
commonly adopted plan of truing 
grindstones is by the use of a piece 
of pipe or the tang of a file, or both. 
The stone can be softened with water 
and roughed down with the tang of 
an old file. By using a piece of pipe 
the sand from the stone imbeds it- 

125 




Fig. 227. — Grind Stone. 




Fig. 228. — ^Truing Device. 



126 



SHOP WORK 




Fig. 229. — Oil Stone in Case. 



self in the soft metal of the pipe and acts, in truing up the grindstone, 
as stones cutting stones. Fig. 228 illustrates a modern truing device. 
Speed of Stones. — A safe working speed of grindstones is one which 
will not throw water from the wheel by centrifugal force. For grind- 
ing woodworking tools, a speed of about 500 to 600 circumferential 
feet per minute is recommended. 

Oil Stones. — Like grindstones 
oil stones are found free in nature 
and contain quartz sand, only of a 
finer texture. The bond differs from 
that of the grindstone, in tkat it is 
a silica of a glassy nature. The 

stones are called oil stones because they cut better and faster when sup- 

pHed with a coat of oil. (See Fig. 229.) 

Artificial Stones. — The range of work for which the natural grind- 
stone is used is limited, as it must be run slowly, and its cutting effi- 
ciency, at a safe operating speed, is too slow to be operated economi- 
cally. Accordingly, our ever ready inventive genius created for us sev- 
eral abrasives which seem to meet all of the requirements to date, that 
is, they may be operated at high rate of speed, are fast cutters, are free 
from glazing, have different sizes of grit, and are uniform in work. 
These artificial stones are the emery, corundum, and carborundum 
stones. 

Emery. — Emery is found in the 
form of rock and is crushed into differ- 
ent grades of fineness. This crushed 
rock is classified and collected by pass- 
ing it through a series of sieves. The 
sieves over which this crushed rock 
passes range from 8 to 90 wires to tiie 
inch, and that portion which goes 
through a wire screen 40 wires to the 
inch, but too large to go through 41, is 
graded No. 40. A finer grade is pro- 
duced by floating the dust on water. 
This grade is called "F. F.", that is, flour 
fine, and is used in making hones and 

grinding compounds for lenses. This material is then mixed with a 
suitable bond and placed in moulds to form wheels, scythe stones, slips, 
cones, etc. ,and is dried and baked at a high temperature. Such a com- 
pound is called an emery stone. (See Fig. 230.) 




Fig. 230. — Emeey Wheel. 




ABRASIVES 127 

Corundum. — Corundum is a mineral similar to emery and it is 
worked after the same fashion and into the same class of moulds as 
emery. It is lighter than emery, therefore, it can be run at a higher 
rate of speed and develops a greater cutting efficiency. 

Carhorundum. — Carborundum is 
an abrasive, similar in appearance to 
the emery and corundum. It is 
graded, moulded, and used in the 
same way, but the cutting particles 
are obtained by an entirely different 
process. Carborundum is the trade 
name for carbide of silicon, that is, 
a chemical combination of carbon and ^'^^«- 231.-Caeboeundum Stone. - 

silicon. The element carbon is sup- 
plied by crushed coke and the element silicon by sand. Accordingly, 
these two materials are mixed in certain proportions and loaded into 
the electric furnace. A little sawdust is added to the mixture to make 
it porous, so that certain gases, which form in heating the material, 
can escape. Hence those wonderful abrasive crystals, "near diamonds," 
are made of every day materials such as sand, coke and sawdust. This 
mixture is treated in a temperature of 7,500 degrees Fahrenheit, during 
which all the undesirable material is vaporized. After cooling, the 
crystalized mass is crushed, graded, and worked similar to the emery. 
Carborundum, like emery and corundum, is slightly brittle; conse- 
quently, when it comes in contact wtih metal, it breaks slightly, form- 
ing new crystals, and each new crystal gives new cutting edges. (See 
Fig. 231.) 

Speed of Artificial Stones. — Artificial stones, whether fine, medium 
or coarse, may be run dry or in water, the water serving the same 
purpose as it does with grind stones. There is no positive rule re- 
garding the speed at which these wheels should run, as so many ele- 
ments, such as bonds, etc., enter into the design, but, as a rule, they 
do the best work when run with a peripheral speed of from 4500 to 
5000 feet per niinute. High speed wheels should always be shielded. 



CHAPTER VII 
SANDPAPER 

Details of Manufacture. — That there should be a great many de- 
tails in the manufacture of sandpaper seems, at first thought, rather 
remarkable; but when one stops to consider the large variety of ma- 
terial which goes to make paper, the different ways of making it, the 
innumerable substances which are used in glue, and the wide range 
in their prices, not to mention the various factory methods, it is not 
strange. If the different grades of paper were limited to ten, and 
the glue to ten, we would still have one hundred possible combinations, 
without even considering the sand, grading, or care in manufacture. 
The process of making sandpaper has been specialized to a degree 
which seemingly allows but little possible improvement, and the product 
is so low in price that it is poor economy to use inferior paper, espe- 
cially since quality is so important that it outweighs every other con- 
sideration. 

Strength. — The most important quality of sandpaper is strength; 
not strength in one direction merely, but in every direction. Paper 
designed for sandpaper is of two kinds: cylinder and Fourdrinier. 
The cylinder paper has its strength all in one direction; the Four- 
drinier paper has no grain, the fibres being distributed in such a 
manner that the strength is equal in every direction. Fourdrinier. 
paper will not tear in a straight line. It is made in combinations of 
fibre in different thicknesses, according to the grit to be applied. 

Glue. — Few people realize the adhesive power of the best glue, 
and sandpaper demands the very finest. It has to be specially made, and 
must be very elastic. When it is remembered that fine glue has co- 
hesive power equal to and even superior to glass, the importance of the 
right glue can be easily understood. The glue acts not only as a binder, 
but aids materially in strengthening the paper. 

Ingredients. — The term "sandpaper" is a misnomer, as sand is 
not used, the material being crushed flint rock, or quartz. Flint rock, 
when fractured, presents the sharpest edges procurable, whereas, natural 
sand, examined under a microscope, will be found to have a rounded 

128 



SANDPAPER . 129 

appearance, the cutting edges being considerably dulled by the action 
of wind and water. The garnet paper is made by the use of garnet 
ore, which is secured in the United States and abroad. It is not 
quite as sharp as flint rock, the particles fracturing at right angles, 
but the edges are more durable than flint. In grinding flint or garnet, 
the material, in the form of large chunks, is first passed through 
crushers, which are graduated to produce the desired grit. The mate- 
rial is then carried to sifting rollers, which are, in reality, skeleton 
cylinders, covered with fine bolting cloth. The material passes through 
the inside of the cylinders, which are placed at an angle, the larger 
pieces passing out at the opposite end, only the finest material being 
sifted through. The sifted product is then passed through a series 
of vibrating separators, which determine the different sizes with ex- 
treme exactness and uniformity. 

Process of Manufacture. — All kinds of sand, emery paper, and 
emery cloth are made in rolls as large as those used in the printing of 
a daily paper. The process is continuous to such an ejctent that, while 
the paper is still coming from the roll at one end, the finished product 
is being rer oiled at the other end. The first step in the process is 
the printing of the brand, which is done by passing the paper through 
a roller press. The paper next dips into the glue, which is applied 
very hot, rubber buffers preventing its spreading to the other side 
of the paper. From this it passes under brushes which distribute 
the glue evenly. It next passes under a shower of the grit desired, 
the surplus falling off by gravity at the first turn. A further applica- 
tion of a thin solution of glue gives an extra coating which thoroughly 
cements all the particles. From this the paper passes over a hot blast 
drier, and is suspended in long loops, traveling slowly for a consider- 
able distance, to be finally rolled in a finished state. The sheets are 
cut by running the paper from the rolls through a cutter which drops 
them out, automatically counted, and delivered so that they can be 
easily assembled in quires and reams. 

QuMity and Care. — To determine the quality of sandpaper, tear 
it from each edge. Good paper will not readily tear straight. It 
does not tear cleanly, but the fibre pulls away, leaving an irregular 
edge. This characteristic should be the same, tearing from all four 
directions. When bent, the paper should give a good snapping sound, 
and when bent sharply, the particles should not loosen and drop off. 
Another test is to rub two pieces from the same sheet together. This 
is a very severe test, but good paper will give up its grit with extrem.e 
reluctance, not showing the paper beneath without considerable rub- 



130 SHOP WORK 

bing. Above all things, sandpaper should be kept in a dry place, away 
from an open window where there is the possibility of its absorbing 
moisture from the air. If the paper gets too dry, and ci"acks or breaks 
when fastening it to the drums, moisten the paper on the back before 
attempting to place it on the drums. This will do away with the trouble. 
Steel Wool. — Steel wool is fine steel shavings. It is manufactured 
in many ways and in many degrees of coarseness. Steel wool is used 
in the finish room to work down coats of shellac, varnish, etc. It cats 
rapidly and will expose the wood if care is not taken. 



CHAPTER VIII 
FILES AND RASPS 

Historical. — In writing the story of files, one wonders at the little 
change that has been made in their construction since they were first 
put into use by the originators, supposedly the Swiss. The saying 
that necessity is the mother of invention seems to be true of files, 
as it is apparent, from the chronicles of the early makers of watches, 
who also seem to have been the Swiss, that files were put to universal 
use in southern Europe about four or five centuries ago. The shapes 
of files at that time, were about the same as they are today, except 
the tang, which resembled the Swiss pattern of today so far as the 
heel and tang are concerned, there being practically no heel. The 
tang, commencing from the width of the file and tapering to a point, 
was about one-third the length of the file itself. Soon after files ap- 
peared in southern Europe, traveling journeymen mechanics introduced 
them to England, and it was only a short time before factories sprang 
up all over the country ; but it remained for Lancashire to manufacture 
them on a large scale and lead the world in that staple, until about a 
half century ago. 

Hand Cut Files. — Up to that time all files were cut by hand. 
Blanks were forged to the proper shape, then the cutters, highly pro- 
ficient, were seated in front of a block of wood, upon which rested 
a block of lead, and began the laborious task of cutting with chisel 
and hammer. There is little wonder that some teeth were cut deeper 
than others, and some not cut at all, when you consider that each tooth 
depended not only upon the skill of the operator but also upon the 
mental and physical condition of the hammer wielder as well. 

Machinery Cut. — It remained for American ingenuity as well as 
necessity to invent machinery that, in cutting files, never varies the 
millionth part of an inch, and the diagonal cut upon the steel-blank 
is absolutely the same on every file. The operator still sits upon his 
seat before the block, but all his efforts are directed exclusively to 
feeding the ravenous machine that is ever hungry for more. 

Sizes and Kinds. — There are more than 3,000 sizes and kinds of 
files, and to describe them all, or even any considerable part of them, 
would be beyond the scope of this chapter. 

131 

12 



132 



SHOP WORK 



Features. — Files and rasps have three distinguishing features: 
First, length, which is measured exclusive of the tang; second, the 
kind or name, which has reference to the shape or style; third, the 
cut, which has reference not only to the character, but also to the rela- 
tive degree of coarseness of the teeth. 

Cuts. — The cuts with which all must be familiar are : The rasp — 
coarse, bastard, second cut and smooth; double cut — coarse, bastard, 
second-cut and smooth; single cut — coarse, bastard, second cut and 
smooth. (See Fig. 232.) 






Rasp Coarse 



Double Cut Coarse 



Single Cut Coarse 






Rasp Bastard 



Double Cut Bastard 



Single Cut Bastard 









Rasp Second Cut 



Dbl. Cut Second Cut 



Single Cut Second Cut 



• t ' 't '» ■> 



'».< 



f 




Rasp Smooth 



Double Cut Smooth 



Single Cut Smooth 



Fig, 232.— Cuts of Files. 



FILES AND RASPS 



-too 
ioo 



Length, Tang, Thickness and Kind. — The length of a file is the 
distance between the heel and the point. The tang, or portion of the 
file prepared for the reception of the handle, is never included in the 
length. In general, the length of files bears no fixed proportion to 
either their width or thickness, even though they be of the same kind. 
By kind is meant the varied shapes or styles of files which are dis- 
tinguished by certain technical names, as, flat, mill, half-round, etc. 
These kinds are divided, from the form of their cross sections, into 
three geometrical classes, namely: quadrangular, circular, and tri- 
angular sections, v/hile odd and irregular sections are classified under 
miscellaneous sections. These sections are in turn, subdivided, ac- 
cording to their general contour or outline, into taper or blunt. Taper 
designates a file, the point of which is more or less reduced in size, both 
in width and thickness, by a gradually narrowing section extending to 
the point. Blunt designates a file that preserves its sectional shape 
throughout, from point to tang. (See Fig. 233.) 



12 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 

Fig. 233. — Kinds of Files. 

(1) Slim Taper; (2) Taper; (3) Square; (4) Blunt Band; (5) Mill; (6) Flat Bastard; 

(7) Half-Rouml; (S) Round; (9) Half-Round Wood Rasp. 



File Cleaners. — File cleaners, consisting of card, brush, and scorer 
together, or card and scorer alone, are used for keeping a file free from 
filings. The scorer is made of soft iron, and is used to remove the 
pins which fill up and clog the teeth, causing scratches in the work, 
if not removed. The brush will be found a most efficient annex to the 
card, especially upon finer files, and removes the filings much more 
effectually than can be done by the card alone. (See Fig. 234 and 235.) 



134 



SHOP WORK 





Fig. 234. — File Card, 



Fig. 235.— File Brush. 



Use. — Very few mechanical operations are more difficult than that 
of filing well. Unlike the tool fixed in the iron-planer, whose move- 
ment is guided by unyielding ways, the file must be guided by the hand, 
and the accuracy with which this is done will depend largely upon the 
skill and patience of the operator. While a perfect file is necessary to 
secure the best results in filing, knowledge as to the selection of the 
proper file for the work in hand and practice in handling are equally 
essential. 

Machine and Hand-Made Files. — In conclusion, it is well to call 
attention to the fallacy of the old-fashioned idea that all things hand- 
made are pre-eminently the best. In the case of the file at least, this 
idea is without foundation. No hand-made file of today compares favor- 
ably with machine-made files. The machine-made file of today is as far 
superior to the old style hand-made file as the electric light is to the 
tallow candle. It is one of the most staple articles in the hardware 
store. The file is now, as ever, the same old reliable tool it was on 
its introduction, when the mechanical age, of which the present day 
is the apex, was ushering into the world. 



CHAPTER IX 
FACTS ABOUT WOOD 

Uses and Nature of Wood. — Wood is now, has ever been, and will 
continue to be, the most widely useful material of construction. It 
has been at the base of all material civilization. In spite of all the 
substitutes for it in the shape of metal, stone, and other materials, 
the consumption of wood in civilized countries has never decreased. 
Although wood has been in use so long and so universally, there still 




Fig. 236. — Log Skidway, Showing Method of Scaling. 

exists a remarkable lack of knowledge regarding its nature in detail, 
not only among laymen, but among those who might be expected to 
know its properties. Experience has been the only teacher, and notions 
— sometimes i-ight, sometimes wrong — rather than well substantiated 

135 



136 



SHOP WORK 



facts, lead the wood consumer. Iron, steel and other metals are much 
better known in regard to their properties than wood. The reason for 
this imperfect knowledge lies in the fact that wood is not a homogenous 
material like the metals, but a complicated structure, and so variable 
that one stick will behave very differently from another stick, although 
cut from the same tree. Not only does the wood of one species differ 
from that of another, but the butt cut differs from the top log; the 
heart wood from the sapwood; the wood of the quickly grown sapling 




Fig. 237. — Tkansporting Logs by Team. 



of the abandoned field from that of the slowly grown old monarch of 
the forest. Even the manner in which the tree was sawed and the con- 
dition in which the wood was cut and kept influence its behavior and 
quality. It is, therefore, extremely difficult to study the material for 
the purpose of establishing general laws, and it becomes necessary to 
make specific inspection of the individual stick which is to be applied 
to a certain purpose. 

Logging. — Logging or "felling" timber should be done as much 
as possible at the time when the tree has reached its maturity, if the 
maximum service the tree is capable of producing, is desired. The 



FACTS ABOUT WOOD 



137 



age of maturity varies with different trees. The best season for felling 
timber is either in midsummer or midwinter. The conducting or grow- 
ing cells during this season are less active, or practically dormant, and 
durable wood can be secured at this time. The ax and the saw are 
the tools used in felling trees. After the tree is felled it is cleared of 
branches and sawed into lengths and then taken to the saw mill. 

Transportation. — Transporting logs to the mill is done first by 
drawing the logs to a railroad or a stream with a team of horses or 
oxen. If taken to a stream the logs are drifted to a sawmill, v/hich 
usually stands near the stream or pond. 




Fig. 2^38.— Tkanspokting Logs by Kail. 



Sawmills. — Sawmills cut the logs into timber, planks or boards 
and these constitute lumber. There are two different types of saws 
used in sawmills, circular saws and band saws. 

Timber. — Timber includes all large sizes, such as beams and joists. 
Planks are wide and always thicker than one inch. Boards vary in 
width and length, and are always one inch or less in thickness. 



138 



SHOP WORK 



Milling. — Milling is the process followed up after the lumber leaves 
the sawmill and is properly seasoned. Two types of machines are used 
in milling — a planer, to surface the sides, and a jointer, to straighten 
and surface the edges. 




Fig. 239.— Log Slide. 



Seasoning.— Seasoning lumber consists in rernoving the moisture. 
This may be done by air seasoning or kiln drying. Air seasoning is 
done by piling (sticking) the lumber in large square piles in the open 
air, with the layers separated by narrow strips. Thus by permitting 
the air to circulate freely through the pile, the lumber dries gradually 
and uniformly. The air drying is a slow process, but more satisfactory. 
The time varies with the species of wood and climatic conditions. 
From two to four years is considered sufficient for air drying. Water 
seasoning is done by permitting the timber to lie in water for a consider- 
able time. This dissolves the sap in the pores and is replaced by water 
which readily evaporates when the timbers are laid out to dry. Water 
seasoned timber is used mostly for the spars of ships. Kiln drying is 
an artificial process used in seasoning lumber. The wood is placed 
in a chamber which is heated by steam or hot air and at a certain 



FACTS ABOUT WOOD 



139 









K..^ 


Aii^^fA jkA. ..^ 


if, 






- i^i^ 


•ImH 


1 


'^71? 




^',. 


5 «« ! " 




'■\ ^ n-. 


tc%n 


■^HSi^ 


..aa^J 


'"^^'***^>^ ■.'^!^;»j_l^f^^-^ 


«i:.-;«»4" 






. "l=-;tX.^gf3l^jil 


:^.';...Ai:« 


•.-^ffl«is»- 




Sfil^ 


=-=':;^ig;;- 


"^"^^ 'fjgjj^'g^jjj^^v-^ 












mli}'^ 




^ife 


.,£-ar:'' *««*<.? 


B^^^^^iv' ■:^,^5:;5.^ 


SI 



Fig, 2i0. — Mill of the Pacific Lumber Company, Scotia, Calif, 



degree of temperature. . This rapid and forced process of drying is 
inferior to that of the open air, in that it dries the surfaces and ends 
too rapidly leaving the interior too moist. 

Warping and Cracking. — Warping and 
cracking of wood is caused by the outer layers 
shrinking more rapidly than the center, or 
heart wood. In practically all cases, the crack 
runs parallel to the medullary rays, and across 
the annual rings. Boards cut from near the 
heart of the log do not warp as readily as 
those cut near the outer edge. The heart wood 
05^ board remains approximately straight, while 
the outer edge board has a tendency to warp 
Check; ^^^ draw the wood together at right angles 
to the medullary rays. 




Fig. 



(a) 



242. — Shrinking- 

Lumber. 
Crack; (&) 

(c) Warp 



Decay of Woods. — Decay of wood is caused by attacks of two forms 
of life. The breaking or sawing off of branches, thus leaving the 
wound exposed to the air, enables a fungus growth or a boring insect 



140 



SHOP WORK 



to infest these unprotected places. Artificial preservatives are used 
successfully in arresting the decay of woods. Wood-tar and coal-tar 
are coipmionly used on wood adapted to out-of-door structures, because 
of their cheapness. Paints, also, are used on timber that does not 
come in contact with the soil. 

Methods of Preservation. — Charring, resulting from exposing the 
wood in the fire until the whole surface is covered with a coat of char- 
coal, is very successful when applied to well seasoned lumber. Creo- 
sote is a liquid used extensively for dipping . railroad ties, telegraph 
and telephone poles to prevent decay. 




Fig. 241. — Mill and Yard on Coconino National Forest, Flagstaff, Arizona. 



Strength of Timber. — The strength of timber is determined by 
its power to resist pressure, tearing, twisting and shearing of external 
force applied in any form. 

Grain. — The terms ''fine grained," "coarse grained," "straight 
grained," and "crossed grained" mre frequently applied in wood work- 
ing. In common usage, wood is "coarse grained" if its annual rings 
are wide, "fine grained" if they are narrow; in the finer wood indus- 



FACTS ABOUT WOOD 



141 



tries a "fine grained" wood is capable of high poUsh while a "coaijse 

grained" wood is not, so in the latter case the distinction depends 

chiefly on hardness, and in the former on an accidental case of sic w 

or rapid growth. 

Markings. — Markings on the board 

are determined by the way the board is 
cut out of the log. A plain sawed board 
is one that shows the annual rings ap- 
proximately parallel, if the tree is 
straight grained. This kind of cut is 
used on all construction work. A bas- 
tard sawed board is cut tangential to 
the annual rings. This cut warps read- 
ily because the outer layer of wood is 
younger and newer. A bastard cut can 
never be made at the center or near the 
center of the log. Quarter-sawed wood 
is cut from a log that has been previous- 
ly cut into quadrants. Each quadrant 
is then cut at nearly right angles to the annual rings. This style of 
sawing is done on all material for high class cabinet and interior work, 
and reduces warping to a minimum, but is very wasteful in lumber. 
The cross section of a tree is composed of bark — a protective layer, — 
then follows the bast, cambium layer — zone of growth — sapwood and 
heartwood. 




Fig. 243. — Methods of Quarter- 
Sawing Lumber. 



Board Measure. — Lumber is bought and sold by the 1000 feet (M) , 
board measure, at so much per thousand. The term "board feet" means 
a piece of lumber whose flat surface contains 1 square foot and whose 
thickness is one inch or less. In common practice, lumber is always 
less in width and thickness than called for by the customer. This loss 
is due to sawing and dressing, i. e., planing of the stock. The standard 
length of lumber is 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 ft. and, if special lengths are 
desired, additional charges are made. Lumber in the rough is more 
nearly the full size than the dressed. In measuring the width of rough 
lumber, a fraction of an inch that is equal to or greater than a half 
inch is counted as a full inch; anything less than a half inch is dis- 
carded. If a common rough board is 8% in. wide, it is considered as an 
9 in. board; if it is 8% in. wide, it is considered as an 8 in. board. 
Stock one-half inch thick is less per board foot than stock one inch thick. 
Ask a dealer the price per board foot of plain, red oak one inch thick, 
also the price of the same kind and grade of wood one-half inch thick. 
To find the number of board feet, multiply the number of boards by the 



142 



SHOP WORK 



thickness in inches, by the width in inches, by the length in feet, and 
divide the product by 12. 

Example : How many board feet in 7 boards, 1 inch thick, 6 inches 
wide and 16 feet long? 7x1x6x16=5^ bo^^d feet. 

WOODS. 

Tulip or Yellow Poplar. — The tulip 
or yellow poplar is a large handsome 
tree, native of the Eastern United 
States from northern Florida to Mas- 
sachusetts and the Great Lakes west- 
ward beyond the Mississippi. Ordi- 
narily it grows to a height of 80 feet 
in the open, and in a forest to a 
height of near 120 feet, with a tall, 
straight, unbranched trunk. Its leaves 
are markedly different from all cithers 
and once recognized will never be 
confused with any other. It appears 
as though half of the leaf were cut 
away by cutting the apex off, leaving 
the remaining portion notched. It is 
angular, has four points and a sharp 
lobe on each side. Aside from i.he 
redwood of the Pacific slope there is 




Fig. 



245. — Outline of Leaf, Bud and 
Flowee of Tulip ok Yellow 
Poplar Tree. 
Courtesy American Forestry Magazine. 

no tree from which the lumberman can secure such broad boards and 
planks of clear stuff that have so great an economic value for so many 
purposes. While neither so soft nor so strong nor so easily worked 
as white pine, it shrinks little when seasoning, does not warp, does not 
split when a nail is driven near the end, takes glue and stain well 
and actually presents a better surface for paint than pine. It yields 
the longest, clearest planks of all American hardwoods. Yellow pop- 
lar has long been a favorite material for furniture, though for highest 
grades it is not in the same class with mahogany, cherry, walnut and 
maple. The list of articles of furniture and finish into which it enters 
would include almost every piece in a well furnished residence, school, 
office or church, including chairs, mantels, benches, desks, tables, bed- 
steads, pianos, organs, book shelves, molding, paneling and many more. 
In some of these it is the outside exposed material which receives the 
polish or paint; in others it is the framework over which other woods 
are laid. Yellow poplar furnishes an excellent backing for veneer be- 
cause it retains its shape and holds glue well. It is also an excellent 
veneer in the highest grade work. 



FACTS ABOUT WOOD 



143 







Fig. 244. — Tangential and Quaktek-Sawed Silky Oak. 
Photographed from Specimens in "American Woods," Courtesy B. B. Hough, Lowville, N. Y. 

The White Ash. — The white ash is 
a tall, slender tree with a smooth 
bole which is often free from 
branches for more than half its 
length. Its home is in the eastern 
and central parts of the United 
States as far south as the nof^thern 
limits of the Gulf coastal plain. For 
the variety of its uses white ash has 
no equal. The wood is heavy, even 
grained, hard and strong. Medullary 
rays are numerous and obscure. The 
heart wood is brown while the sap- 
wood is often nearly white. It 
shrinks moderately, seasons with lit- 
tle drying, and takes a good polish. 
FIG. 247.-THE WHITE Ash. Handles of all descriptions, parts of 

Courtesy American Forestry Magazine. VehiclcS, interior WOOd WOrk, par- 
ticularly car construction, parts of musical instruments and even some 
parts of aeroplanes employ white ash in their construction. 




144 



SHOP WORK 




Fig. 246. — Poplar, Chestnut and Water Oak in Cove National Forest, Gkaham 

County, N. Cae. 
Photographed from Specimens in "American Woods," Courtesy R. B. Hough, Lowville, N. Y. 

The Sugar Maple. — The maple 
family has over seventy species, but 
the sugar maple is by far the most 
valuable. It is widely distributed 
through Eastern North America frorn 
Newfoundland to Texas, but the most 
abundant growth is found in the New 
England States, New York, northern 
and western Pennsylvania and west- 
ward through the region of the Great 
Lakes to Minnesota. The wood of 
the sugar maple is hard, heavy, fine 
grained and strong. It has a satiny 
surface which takes a high polish. 
Curly maple and bird's-eye maple are 
not distinct species but are merely 
common sugar maple with unusual 
marking caused by some exterior in- 

FiG. 248.— The Leaves, Seeds and Flow- fluence. The largest demand for 

EEs of sugar maple J ^^^gg f^^^ ^j^g industry which 

Courtesy American Forestry Maga^me. '^ 




FACTS ABOUT WOOD 145 

turns out planing* mill products. These include flooring, ceiling, wain- 
scoting, stairwork and many other articles of interior house finish. No 
wood surpasses maple for flooring either in point of long service or in 
the ease with which it may be kept in repair. Atmospheric changes 
affect it very little so that its joints remain tight and sanitary. For 
stair treads, rails and balusters it is unsurpassed. Large quantities 
of rotary cut maple veneer are used on doors and in wainscoting and 
other parts of interior construction where panels are employed. The 
second greatest demand for maple comes from furniture makers. For 
enameled furniture, it has no equal as its surface takes the smoothest 
and flnest polish and enamel adheres to it perfectly. Most maple fur- 
niture, however, is finished in the natural colpr. Chair factories de- 
mand this timber in enormous quantities. As a wood for parts ol 
agricultural implements, for boot and shoe findings, musical instru- 
ments, and wooden ware, maple has no equal. 

American Elm. — The American 
elm has a wider range than prac- 
tically any other native tree. It is 
found in all of the United States east 
of the arid region bordering the 
Rocky Mountains and extends into 
the southern portion of Canada. The 
elm is conspicuous because of its pop- 
ularity as a shade tree. It grows in 
almost any soil, but it is subject to 
many insect pests. Two distinct 
FIG. 249.-THE American Elm. gpecies, the white and the red, exist, 

Uourtesv the American Forestry Magazine. ^^^ ^^^ j^^^^^ .^ ^^ j.^^j^ Commercial 

importance. The white elm wood 
enters into ship building, the cooperage industry and to some extent in 
furniture making. Recently elm has been finished to imitate some of 
the more expensive woods but this has been done by staining rather 
than by producing the figure. Elm's place is in cheap furniture or in 
the interior parts of the more expensive kinds. The wood is employed 
in the manufacture of kitchen tables and other furniture because of 
the ease with which it may be kept white by scrubbing. 

The Chestnut, — Our native chestnut tree is one of our best known 
and best loved trees because of its beauty and its utility. It grows from 
southeastern Maine to southern Michigan and south to northern Vir- 
ginia, southern Indiana and along the Appalachian mountains to north- 
ern Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi. Commonly, the mature trees 




146 



SHOP WORK 




are from 3 to 5 feet in diameter and 
from 60 to 90 feet in height, but 
there are numerous specimens much 
larger. The heartwood of chestnut 
is Ught brown in color while its 
sapwood is yellowish or whitish. 
Chestnut belongs to the same plant 
family as the oaks yet its wood can 
be easily distinguished from them 
by the apparent absence of medul- 
lary rays which are the markings 
that give such a pleasing appear- 
ance to quartered oak. These rays 
are present but they are not easily 
seen. Chestnut is neither a very 
Fig. 250.— Leaf and Feuit of Chestnut, strong nor a very hard wood, but 

Courtesy of the American Forestry Magazine, It is VCry CVCU grained and dur- 
able. It will outlast almost all the oaks and most other hardwoods, 
its durability being due to the high percentage of tannin which it con- 
tains. Its lightness, freedom from warping, durability and reasonable 
strength, together with its great abundance have given chestnut a great 
variety of uses. In carpentry its use is confined chiefly to interior work. 
It takes paint well and finishes attractively in the natural wood, but is 
too soft for flooring or other places where there is excessive wear. For 
furniture making it probably surpasses any one of the oaks in volume 
used, yet, with the exception of panels in wooden bedsteads, kitchen 
furniture and less expensive tables, little furniture is finished in chest- 
nut. Its great use is as a core stock for veneers. There are two rea- 
sons for its popularity in the furniture industry. First, it is light, 
does not warp, is little affected by moisture and can be obtained in wide 
widths. Second, its open porous structure and its freedom from knots 
enables the glue which binds the veneer to take a good grip. Chestnut 
also has an advantage when used with oak in that its resemblance to 
that wood in plain section enables it to be finished on sides and ends 
of pieces of furniture whose tops are veneered with oak. 

The Hickory. — The hickory is a characteristic American tree. 
The area in which it grows covers about one-third of the area of the 
United States, although all species are most usually found in one 
locality. "Tough as hickory" is a phrase suggesting the peculiar 
strength and elasticity of the hickory wood. It is heavy and strong 
but is not durable when exposed to the weather. It is noted for its flex- 
ibility and elasticity. Hickory has long been and will continue 



FACTS ABOUT WOOD 



147 




to bQ a favorite for handles of all 
kinds. Many modern farm tools 
could not dispense with the hickory 
that forms various parts of them. 




Fig. 251. — The Mockernut Hickoky. 
Courtesy the American Forestry Magazine. 



Fig. 252. — The Leaves, Flowers 
AND Seeds op Basswood. 
Courtesy the American Forestry Magazine. 



Basswood. — The natural range of the basswood is from New 
Brunswick south along the Alleghany Mountains to Alabama, and west- 
ward to eastern Texas, Nebraska, and southern Minnesota. The tree 
is commonest about the Great Lakes but attains to best development 
on the bottom lands of the Ohio River. The light brown wood is soft, 
straight grained, and easily worked but not durable. Large quantities 

are used for house lumber, wooden 
ware, carriage bodies, panel work 
and paper pulp. 



The American White Oak. — Both 
sentiment and intrinsic value have 
long given the oak the most impor- 
tant place among the hardwoods. At 
an early date it was associated with 
the gods. It is symbolic of strength, 
permanence and independence. Poets 
have sung its praise and have re- 
ferred to it as "the builder oak, sole 
king of forests all." Nearly 300 
species are known and many of these 
are commercially useful, but it is 
necessary to confine ourselves to the 
most important. The white oak is 
our most important oak and is one 




-The White Oak. 
Courtesy the American Forestry Magazine, 

13 



148 



SHOP WORK 



"^ £^ 


's,^|| 






M 


KJ'Aa 


fit 






r 




Ipi 


5 




1 




M 






1 


^Mi Ai ' 


Hi 






1' 


fiill 


U^^ra 






■> 



Fig. 254. — ^A White Oak Stump and 

Spkay of Leaves. 
Courtesy the American Rorestry Magazine. 



of the most widely distributed and 
most used hardwoods in the United 
States. While found through almost 
all the eastern half of the country it 
is most abundant in the central Mis- 
sissippi and lower Ohio basins and on 
the western slopes of the Alleghany 
Mountains. To get an idea of the 
amount cut, it may safely be said 
that the annual output is two billion 
feet. In earlier times it was used 
for agricultural implements and for 
house frames, and furniture was 
made of it centuries before strains 
and fillers were known. Bridges, 
piling and ships have been, and are 
still, constructed of this material. About 1885 quarter-sawing became 
popular. This opened a new era for oak, for the process cuts the medul- 
lary rays in such a way that their broad surfaces are exposed. About 
one-fourth of all furniture made in the United States is of white oak. 
At present very little solid oak furniture is made except the cheapest 
or the most expensive kinds. Common chairs, bedsteads and tables are 
made of plain sawed material ; the very expensive, deeply carved pieces 
are solid because only thick, solid pieces will show the carving. The 
medium priced oak furniture is practically all veneered. 

Black Walnut. — Black walnut is 
one of the most widely distributed 
and valuable of our deciduous trees. 
Although of fair size wherever 
found, black walnut attains its best 
development on the rich bottom lands 
in the basin of the Mississippi. By 
planting, the area in which it is com- 
mon has been greatly increased. In 
its natural range, it occurs in scat- 
tered groups or as isolated individ- 
uals among other species. The wood 
of walnut is heavy, hard, strong and 
of coarse texture. The sapvv^ood is- 
narrow and whitish in color and the 
heartwood is a chocolate brown which 




Fig. 256. — The Black Walnut. 
Courtesy the American Rorestry Magazine. 



FACTS ABOUT WOOD 



149 



deepens with age and exposure. The wood shrinks moderately in dry- 
ing and if care is taken, dries without checking. It works and stains 
well, takes a good polish and is valuable as a cabinet wood. Walnut 
was formerly used extensively for furniture and interior finish, for gun 
stocks, tool handles and carriage hubs. At present the supply is so 
small that it is being conserved for the manufacture of rifle stocks only. 

Western Red Cedar. — Next to 
Douglas fir, Western red cedar is the 
most important timber tree of the 
northern Pacific slope. Its ability to 
resist decay has won it many names. 
One tree which fell and over which 
others extended their roots was found 
in excellent preservation even though 
the living trees showed an age of 
1500 years. Indians early used it in 
making canoes and today it is the 
greatest shingle wood we have. The 
wood is soft, straight grained, easily 
worked and little subject to check' 
ing. Only small quantities of the 
wood are used in house construction 
except for siding and shingles but it 
is used extensively for poles, piling 
and fence posts. 




Fig. 257. — The Westeen Red Cedar. 
Courtesy the American Forestry Magasine, 



Red Gum. — Red gum is perhaps the com- 
monest timbeir tree in the hardwood bottoms 
and drier swamps of the South. In most 
favorable conditions it reaches a heighth of 
150 feet and a diameter of 5 feet. Red gum 
3ame into prominence in quite recent times. 
Owing chiefly to its tendency to warp and 
Lwist, and also to the fact that the supply of 
Dther hardwoods was so large, there was no 
incentive to work so low , priced and sup- 
posedly unsatisfactory a wood as gum. How- 
ever, with the supply of various finishing 
woods in use growing scarcer, red gum was 
looked to as a possible substitute. Certain^^c! 
objectionable qualities of red gum lumber 
have been eliminated by careful handling 




258. — Leaves and Fbuit ob 
THE Red Gum. 



150 SHOP WORK 

and its beauty, adaptability and fine working qualities have promoted 
its use with great rapidity. The wood is about as strong and as stiff 
as chestnut; it splits easily and is quite brash; it is about as hard as 
yellow poplar and works about as easily; its structure is so uniform 
that it can be stained, painted or glued, without absorbing much of 
the material. One of the most important uses of red gum is for in- 
terior finish. It may be obtained in either plain or quarter-sawed 
lumber or selected for figure. The figure is different from the char- 
acter of the figure in most woods. Ordinarily they are due to the 
medullary rays and the variations of annual rings. Gum's figure 
is due to neither, soil and situation being the determining factors. 
One-third of the whole supply of veneer is made from red gum. Es- 
pecially is it used in panel work, both for interior decoration and for 
panels in many pieces of the best furniture. 




Fig. 255. — Tangential and Quartee-Sawed White Oak. 
Photographed from Specimens in "American Woods" Courtesy R. B. Hough, Lowville, N. Y. 

The Redwoods. — The forest of redwoods are limited in area to the 
coast regions of northern California and the extreme southwest corner 
of Oregon. It is rarely found farther than 20 or 30 miles from the 
ocean and is limited to localities where heavy sea fogs are frequent.- 
This family boasts of having the largest trees in the world. Redwood 



FACTS ABOUT WOOD 



151 




Fig. 259.— The Red Wood. 

Courtesy the American Forestry Magazine. 



lumber was first cut in an extensive 
way about fifty years ago. Its chief 
use has been and still is for house 
construction. Being practically im- 
pervious to decay its use for exposed 
parts make it well fitted for exterior 
use. For interior use it has a wide 
range of possibilities. Since it is free 
from pitch, it is especially adapted to 
hold paint and enamel. However, the 
beauty of the grain is so great that 
it is now a common practice to finish 
the wood in its natural state. Red- 
wood produces excellent imitations of 
rosewood and mahogany. It is easy 
to work and can be secured in boards 
of great length and width. The dec- 
orative effects of the natural wood 
are richly varied and the shades of 
color cover a wide range. 












. ai'i..ifi''E.'»'.*.i 



£'i^aaK'sih.xiss!rM--i, 5«&.'«^JMfi[g 





Fig. 260. — ^Tangential and Quartee-Sawed Redwood. 
Photographed from Specimens in "American Woods," Courtesy R. B. Hough, Lowville, N. Y, 



152 



SHOP WORK 



White Pine. — The habitat of the white pine is east and west 1800 
miles, from Newfoundland to Manitoba. Approximately half of its 
range is in the United States and half in Canada. This species of pine 
has been the most important building wood in the world. Its softness 
and weakness have barred it from some places in modern manufac- 
turing and its lack of figure has disqualified it for others, but its range 
of usefulness has been so wide and the supply so great that it held 
first place in forest materials during two and a half centuries. White 
pine has given good service everywhere. It has always been the wood 
of universal excellence for constructing houses, barns, and other build- 
ings. The wood is less affected by moisture than other woods, it 
neither checks nor warps, holds paint and other finishes well and its 
soft even grain makes it an easy wood to work. For a long period it 
served as material for furniture and while not so well adapted for 
the various articles of furniture it served its purpose. 

The Longleaf Pine. — The longleaf 
pine is one of the three most valuable 
timber pines in the United States. 
The others are the white pine and the 
shortleaf pine. The longleaf pine is 
found from the foothills of the Appa- 
lachian Mountains to the coast from 
southeastern Virginia to central Flor- 
ida, and thence westward in the Gulf 
States to eastern Texas. In this re- 
gion it grows in a belt about 125 miles 
wide. It is a tall tree, free from 
branches for more than half its 
height. The wood is heavy, exceed- 
ingly hard and strong. It is usually 
fine-grained and durable, orange col- 
or, sometimes of a very deep shade. 
It has become popular with workers 
who demand timbers of exceptional 
size as it is common for one tree to 

It is largely 




Fig. 261.- 



-Male and 



-Long Leaf Pine 
Female Flowers. 
Courtesy the American Forestry Magazine. 

furnish a log 70 feet long which can be squared to 15 inches 

used for building, both framing, flooring and interior finishing; also 

bridging, railway ties, fencing, and for masts and spars. 

The Shortleaf Pine. — The region of the natural growth of shortleaf 
pine extends from southeastern New York through the southern limits of 



FACTS ABOUT WOOD 



153 




Fig. 262. — Long Leaf Pine, Georgia. 



154 



SHOP WORK 



Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
Missouri, and southward to eastern 
Texas and northern Florida. This 
species of pine grows to moderate 
proportions for a member of the pine 
family, the ordinary tree growing to 
a height of 80 to 100 feet with a 
diameter of 2 to 3 feet. Since it can 
grow rapidly in height when young 
trees are crowded together, trees in 
the woods have long, clean, straight 
trunks. While definitely restricted 
in its area, the good qualities of 
shortleaf pine are so varied and its 
adaptability so superior that its dis- 
tribution extends through the whole 
world. More than 39 per cent of all 
lumber used in the United States is 
shortleaf pine. Its annual produc- 
tion—more than 14,000,000,000 board 
feet — is over three times as great as 



merican Forestry Magazine, ^ny other One WOOd. One of itS best 




Fig. 264. — Veneer Panels of Shortleaf Pine. 
Courtesy of the American Forestry Magasine, Washington, D. C. 



FACTS ABOUT WOOD 



155 



known uses is for interior finish, the grade of lumber used being manu- 
factured from the thick, clear sapwood. So popular has it become that 
architects are specifying it and builders are using it more and more for 
the finest homes all over the country. It is demanded because of its 
grain and beautiful texture which particularly adapt it for fine joinery. 
No other wood oifers such a wide choice in grain and figure. Shortleaf 
pine does not show knife marks in the milling process so it requires 
little labor to obtain a satisfactory surface. The wood hardens with 
age and its beauty is not surpassed by the hardwoods. Owing to the 
absence of pitch it takes paint well and it is an excellent base for enamel. 
For flooring it is unsurpassed for it meets all the requirements of 
strength, smoothness and staying qualities. 

The Bald Cypress. — The interest- 
ing habits of the bald cypress invite 
attention. It is one of few cone- 
bearing trees which drop their leaves 
annually, it has the power to send up 
vigorous sprouts when the tree is 
felled — a rare thing in conifers — and 
it alone can live and thrive with its 
roots always submerged. Ten years 
ago cypress was ^'lumber." Sudden- 
ly, it ceased to be just lumber, a piece 
of wood of specified dimensions, and 
became cypress, "The Wood Eternal." 
Cypress was the first wood to be ad- 
vertised nationally. It is necessary, 
therefore, to take into considera- 
o^r m "'t> ^ tion the effect that intelligent ad- 

FiG. 265.— The Bald Cypress. +i, /I 

Courtesy the American Forestry Magazine. VertlSing haS had On the aemand. 

The natural range of cypress is a region made up of the Atlantic and 
Gulf Coastal Plains and extending up the Mississippi Valley to a point 
more than half way to Canada. Cypress has a variety of uses and for 
many it is preferred above other material. The key to its usefulness 
is its resistance to decay and the fact that it is easily worked. Great 
quantities are used for outside finish of buildings, ceiling, flooring, 
molding and finish. Abundant proof of its resisting qualities is given. 
In South Carolina a grave marker was so well preserved after 140 
years' exposure to the weather that the letters could be easily read. 
Roofs of cypress shingles withstand centuries of exposure. A roof of 
cypress shingles placed on Mount Vernon was removed in 1913. Water 
pipe laid in New Orleg-ns in 1798 was sound when dug up in 1914, 




156 



SHOP WORK 



Spruce. — The "North Woods," a 
storied land so frequently described 
by writers, is the home of spruce. 
This forest stretches from the eastern 
provinces of Canada to Alaska. In 
the United States its growth is con- 
fined to portions of Maine, New 
Hampshire and Vermont, the Adiron- 
dacks and certain portions of the Ap- 
palachian Mountains. Spruce is an 
aristocrat among woods. Its out- 
standing characteristics are strength 
and lightness. With these qualities 
are combined elasticity and ability to 
withstand sudden strain and shock.' 
This wood came into the market as a 
substitute for pine. Although it has 
had a place of its own as a lumber wood its chief use to 1914 was as a 
pulp wood, the length and toughness of fiber especially adapting it for 
that purpose. With the opening of the world war this wood suddenly 




Fig. 26G.— The Spruce. 
Courtesy the American Forestry Magazine. 




Fig. 267.— Felling Spkuce. 



Fig. 268.— a V;kgin Fokest of Spkuce. 



FACTS ABOUT WOOD 



157 



sprang into prominence, for of all known materials including both 
wood and metal, it best meets the requirements for the supporting 
frame-work of air-craft v/ings. The demand is great but forests are 
measuring up to the task and are supplying practically all the spruce 
needed by the allies. 

Douglas Fir. — Douglas fir is a wes- 
tern tree growing throughout the Pa- 
cific Coast region. Except the giant 
redwood no other tree of our continent 
attains larger size. It commonly grows 
from 4 to 6 feet in diameter and from 
180 to 250 feet high, although many 
have been found much larger. The 
color of the wood is light red or yellow. 
The wood is heavy, hard and strong but 
usually is coarse grained and hard to 
work. It has a pleasing grain because 
of the marked contract between its 
spring and summer rings of growth. It 




Fig. 270. — Douglas 

Courtesy American Forestry 



Fir. 

Magazine. 
































^ 



Fig. 269. — Tangential and Quarter-Sawed Spruce. 
Photographed from Specimens in "American Woods," Courtesy of R. B. Hough, Loioville, N. Y. 



158 



SHOP WORK 



has small medullary rays so quarter-sawing will not add to its beauty. 
The most common method of cutting is to cut the log into veneer using 
care to cut across the rings of growth at a very small angle. This 
exposes large irregular areas of the dark and light rings thus creating 
many irregular designs. Douglas fir is adapted to construction through- 
out. It has strength, durability and holds paint v/ell. Fully fifty per 
cent of the cross arms used by telephone and telegraph companies are 
of Douglas fir. It is now used for boxes and heavy crates and recently 
has been found to be of exceptional value in the construction of wood 
pipes, stave tanks and stave silos. 

Birch. — The birch is a native of the great- 
er part of Canada, its range extending into 
the states of the United States bordering on 
that country. There are several species but 
the sweet birch is of greatest importance. 
The wood is stiff and strong. Its most im- 
portant use is for various kinds of furniture. 
The advantages of the wood for this purpose 
are that it is dense and even grained, has 
good milling qualities and will take and hold 
almost any kind of finish. Birch wood can 
be so treated as to imitate mahogany and it 
can also be treated so that it closely resembles cherry. As a furniture 
wood, chairs of all descriptions consume the largest quantity of sweet 
birch, but tables, bookcases and filing cabinets are often made wholly 
or in part of this lumber. 




Fig. 271.— The Birch. 



CHAPTER X 

■ FACTS ABOUT BRUSHES 

Materials and Methods. — There are many methods employed in the 
construction of brushes and a variety of ways in reaching the same 
results in forms and details. Before the manufacturer can assemble 
and combine the parts that make a brush, much time and labor is given 
to the selection and preparation of materials. Bristles are washed clean 
and separated into sizes. Mixtures of different kinds, in the proper 
proportions, are prepared to make brushes suited to various purposes. 
For paint brushes, the mixture is different from that used in varnish 
brushes, and whatever kind the user demands should be made of the 
grade of bristles best adapted to his special purpose. The quantity of 
bristles for each brush is carefully weighed; this insures uniformity in 
respect to fullness, and enables the manufacturer to compute the cost 
of his product. Handles and woods used in brushes are of selected 
kinds, best adapted to their special purposes. The principal raw mate- 
rials from which brushes are made are the products of distant countries. 
Eastern Germany, Russia, Siberia and China produce almost all the 
bristles and hair used in making brushes.* The manufacturer who buys 
at the source of production, obtains raw material cheaper than else- 
where. Misrepresentation as to the quality of brushes exists now to a 
greater extent than heretofore and cheap substitutes for bristles and 
other materials are mixed in brushes more extensively than formerly. 
It IS to be expected that when a scarcity of any natural product de- 
velops and consequently when increased cost takes place, substitutes will 
be used. When substitutes are used and goods are sold under proper 
representation as to quality, the buyer knows what to expect. The use 
of horse hair as an adulterant of bristles has increased much lately and 
many tons are mixed with the bristles in brushes which are sold as all 
bristle brushes. White, gray or black horse hair is skillfully mixed with 
corresponding kinds of bristles so that the finisher rarely discovers the 
fact until he is using the brushes and then he wonders why the bristles 



* At the present time, the bristle situation, like that of many other raw materials 
of foreign origin, is in a very uncertain condition. German bristles and hair are, of 
course, unobtainable; Russian goods are scarce and unreliable as to length and qual- 
ity; and hence most of our present supply is obtained from China. After the conclusion, 
of the World War, conditions will doubtless adjust themselves to normal. 

159 



160 SHOP WORK 

are not as elastic and effective in working as they were formerly, and 
why the bristles wear so quickly. It may be interesting to know that 
while thousands of patents for brushes have been taken out in the United 
States during the past fifty years, there has been little change in the 
methods used in Great Britain and Europe. Not all of the brush inven- 
tions in the United States have been successful, but enough have been 
successful to make radical changes in the methods of making them and 
to result in great economy of materials and lower prices for better 
brushes to those who use them. Today, brushes with chisel ends are 
very common. Not many years ago they were a novelty, and the feature 
of pushing back bristles was a secret. The advantage to the varnisher 
of having his brush broken in when bought is readily seen. To make 
a chisel end brush, the bristles are actually pushed back, on the side of 
the brush, by a clever device, and the soft ends of the bristles are not 
cut off, as is often thought to be the case. One of the most useful 
features attached to brushes is the metallic bridle, rendering the old 
way of bridling with twine almost a lost art. Among the more recent 
inventions of note is the method of fastening the bristles in the ferrule 
so that they will not fall out and so that they can be used in all kinds 
of materials. In using this method, the bristles are first imbedded in 
soft rubber and then vulcanized or hardened so that it is impossible for 
them to fall out. The hard rubber cannot be dissolved by turpentine, 
benzine, alcohol, shellac, hot water or any liquid in which a brush may 
be used. Another method is to set the bristles in a steel band and then 
place it under high pressure. This device holds the bristles in place 
quite successfully. 

Dusters and Artists' Brushes. — Painters' dusters and other kinds 
of dusters are made by methods entirely different from those used in 
making paint brushes. Knots of bristles are crowded into holes, which 
are bored in a hard wood block, after being saturated with cement pitch. 
Some kinds of brushes have their bristles fastened into the holes with 
copper wire, each tuft of bristles being forced tightly into a hole. 
Artists' brushes are of many kinds and practically all are made by 
drawing the bristles into tapering ferrules, each knot having been wound 
with cord and cemented. The business of manufacturing brushes re- 
quires expert knowledge of materials and methods of making, and de- 
tails must be carefully worked out. There are only a few large success- 
ful brush manufacturers in the world. 

Bristles. — A brush may be only a collection of crude, raw materials. 
When bristles leave the hog's back, they have only taken the first step 
towards brush construction. Many things must be done to the bristles 



PACTS ABOUT BRUSHES 161 

before they will do the work that is expected of brushes. Bristles must 
be washed, straightened, and attached to handles by experts. They are 
as carefully and as expertly treated as any article which receives me- 
chanical assistance before being put to its final service by an artist or 
artisan. Every bristle has a natural bend or curve which cannot be 
taken out of it. And therein lies an important secret of good brush 
making. The hair of each animal bends toward its tail, and when 
assembling brushes, skilled hands must arrange each bristle so that this 
natural curve, or bend, points to the center of the brush. If this is 
not done, it will not work well. This is true of the small, fine artist's 
pencil, as well as of the largest paint brush. When the artist's brush 
or pencil does not paint, or when the paint brush crawls and does not 
cling after once broken in, it is because the natural bend of the bristles 
is not properly pointed toward the center of the brush before locking 
them in the ferrule. Each bristle, too, has a large coarse end that is 
locked in the ferrule. The same skilled hands are required to see that 
this coarse end is not reversed and allowed to interfere with the work- 
ing end of the brush. The large coarse end is solid but the thin end 
"with the flag" is split. If properly set this produces the very fine 
taper on the better grade brushes. Up to a certain point, hand work 
is efficient, but it cannot approximate the accuracy of machinery. Most 
of the machinery now in use is of the automatic kind. Russian bristles 
are considered the best for long stock purposes, as they are longer and 
have considerably more elasticity than most others ; although many Ger- 
man bristles are found as long, the elasticity is not so great. Unscrupu- 
lous persons often substitute them for the genuine Russian. Climatic 
conditions are the direct cause of this difference. Nature provides the 
necessary coat for the climate, and hogs are no exception to this rule. 
Chinese bristles are replacing the rapidly depleting supply of Russian 
bristles. While Chinese bristles are not quite as long as Russian the 
quality as a rule is almost equal. Most of the brushes used in house- 
painting, varnishing and enameling are made from Chinese stock. The 
Russian stock, used mostly in kalsomine and other brushes, requires 
extra long length. Almost all bristles used now are black as the original 
white stock is almost unobtainable. Some of the finer hair used in 
artist's and fine painting and varnishing brushes comes from the colder 
countries. Ox hair comes from Siberia. The so-called camel's hair is 
nothing more than hair from squirrels' tails and comes mostly from 
eastern Germany and Russia. Wood-fibre is much used in the manu- 
facture of cheap brushes, as for instance, the palm fibre known generally 
as palmetto. As stated before, the bristles are imported from foreign 
countries, since the bristles of the American hog are so short that it is 



162 SHOP WORK 

impossible to use them in making brushes. The American hog is not 
absolutely worthless as far as his bristles are concerned, as in the mortar 
for plastering is a place to use this otherwise useless commodity. 

Care of Brushes. — Brushes in which the bristles are set in glue 
should never be used in a stain or paint made of water, as the water will 
dissolve the glue. Again if the bristles are set in cement, they should 
not be used in material in which alcohol is used. But a brush in which 
the bristles are set in rubber may be used for any purpose which does 
not injure the bristles themselves. Brushes should never be kept in too 
hot a place, or in excessive heat as they are liable to shrink and come 
apart, no matter how well they are made. Before using a new brush 
always remove the loose bristles which were too short to catch in the 
ferrule. Never put a new brush in water "to soak" as this will destroy 
the life of the bristles and cause them to become flabby and to twist out 
of shape. 



CHAPTER XI 

WOOD FINISHING 

Purpose. — To preserve and beautify the wood is of prime impor- 
tance in wood finishing ; however, so much stress is frequently placed on 
the beautifying of the piece that the preservation of the wood, which ig 
the essential feature, is often overlooked, and, as a result, the aesthetic 
effect will be short lived. To secure good results in wood finishing, the 
pores of the wood must be sealed to insure against warping, twisting, 
expansion, contraction or any physical change that may be effected by 
the fluctuation of the atmospheric conditions. The preservation of the 
wood must not be overlooked ; but, while chemicals are applied to do this, 
other chemicals may be worked harmoniously with them to give a 
finished appearance that will be pleasing to the eye. 

Classes of Finishes. — Briefly speaking, finishes may be divided into 
two classes : exterior and interior. 

Exterior Finishes. — Exterior finishes are usually opaque, consisting 
of a pigment, or base, linseed oil, color matter and a little drier. This 
mixture is called paint. The pigment is stirred with the oil until it has 
^one into solution. Then enough oil or pigment is added to make the 
mixture a good working consistency, after which the colors are added. 
The colors are usually stirred into the paint, but a very common practice 
is to "box them in", at the same time working the oil and pigment by 
pouring them back and forth from one container to another. If neces- 
sary, enough drier may be added to make the paint dry rapidly. 

Pigments. — There are many paint pigments, all of which serve their 
purpose, and do it well, but the one in most common use, the one of the 
longest standing, and probably the best by actual test, is white lead. 

White Lead. — The use of white lead is handed down to us by the 
Romans, but the Dutch are responsible for the scientific manufacture 
of this pigment. The Dutch Process is used largely today, although a 
better and quicker process, known as the Carter Process, is rapidly 
taking its place. 

Dutch Process. — To change pig lead into white lead by the Dutch 
Process, the pigs are moulded into perforated discs or buckles. These 

163 

14 



164 SHOP WORK 

buckles are properly stacked in pots, the bottoms of which are covered 
with acetic acid, or vinegar ; these pots are placed in a corroding house, 
which is lined with spent tan bark. The bark ferments, throwing off 
carbonic acid gas, and generating a hQat that evaporates the acetic acid. 
The vaporized acetic acid, together with the carbonic acid gas, attacks 
the buckles and corrodes them into a white porcelain substance, called 
white lead. This substance is ground with high speed mill stones and 
passed through fine silk bolting cloth. This product is dried in copper 
pans, with exhaust steam, and the resulting product is the dry white 
lead of commerce. The dry white lead is mixed with linseed oil and 
ground by large burr mills to a paste form, and is called, "White lead 
in oil of commerce.'* 

Carter Process. — The Carter Process, or the new process, is more 
modern and scientific than the old Dutch method, while the chemical 
construction is the same. Under the Carter Process, the corrosion is 
under perfect control at all times. The pig lead is pulverized and loaded 
into revolving cylinders or barrels. Into these cylinders the purified 
carbonic acid gas flows, and, at intervals, the lead is sprayed with a 
weak solution of acetic acid and water. As the cylinders revolve, the 
lead is shifted around, exposing every grain to the corroding agencies. 
This corroded lead is watched carefully, taken out at the proper time, 
and treated by the grinders to a process similar to the Dutch Process. 
The method of producing white lead by the Carter Process takes about 
fifteen days ; while it takes from one hundred to one hundred and thirty 
days by the old Dutch Process. 

Linseed Oil. — Linseed oil is produced from flax-seed and is the most 
valuable, with the exception of Chinese Wood Oil, of all the drying oils. 
The seed is crushed and ground to a fine meal, heated with steam and 
then submitted to an extreme hydraulic pressure, which eliminates the 
oil and leaves a solid mass, known as linseed cake. The latter is mar- 
keted as a live stock food. The new process of producing linseed oil is 
to take the crushed flax-seed and submerge it in naptha, which, under 
gentle heat, extracts most of the oil from the meal. After this, it under- 
goes a process of distillation which separates the naptha from the linseed 
oil. This is the most satisfactory and economical method Imown. Lin- 
seed oil for varnish makers' purpose is refined by a bleaching process 
which eliminates all foods, or albumen, leaving an almost water white 
oil which can be heated to 625 degrees Fahrenheit without the slightest 
discoloration. Ordinary commercial linseed oil will not stand this heat, 
as foods, or albumen, present in it, decompose and cause the oil to turn 
very dark. 



WOOD FINISHING' 165 

Chinese Wood Oil. — Chinese Wood oil is the product of the tung tree 
in China. The fruit of this tree is a peculiar bottle shaped nut. When 
ripe the seeds are collected and the oil is extracted. It is used in prefer- 
ence to linseed oil in the making of the greater part of our varnishes. 
The Chinese and Japanese have known the valuable properties of this 
oil for many centuries and have used it on their boats as a wood preser- 
vative. 

Colors. — Colors are divided into two classes : Pigment colors, such 
as are used in paints ; and soluble colors, which are soluble in water, oil, 
or spirits. The latter thoroughly dissolving in their solvents, produce 
deep, but clear and transparent, colors. Pigment colors are made largely 
by the blending of clays and oxides, produced by heat in cupolas or 
ovens ; while colors soluble in water, oil or spirits are bi-products of coal 
tar, and are classified as anilines. 

Color Shades. — The application of all colors, whether pigment or 
soluble, is the same; that is, the blending of certain colors to produce 
certain shades. The colors most common to the painter and finisher are 
the following: 

Burnt and Raw Umber, Canary Yellow, 

Burnt and Raw Sienna, Crome Yellow, 

Vandyke Brown, Prussian Blue, 

Tuscan Red, Cobalt Blue, 

India Red, Chrome Green, 

Para Red, Bronze Green. 

Drop Black, Lamp Black. 

By experimental work many pleasing shades may 'be worked out. 
These colors may be darkened by the addition of lamp black, or lightened 
by the addition of a "thinner". 

Composition.— It will be seen, by chemical analysis, that ordinary 
house paints are made of such every day material as white lead, linseed 
oil, colors and a little drier. 

Application of Paint.— When applying paint, be sure that the wood 
is free from water and dirt. Water is the greatest enemy an oil paint 
has. In painting houses, barns, etc., it is necessary that a quantity of 
linseed oil is added to the paint. The added oil serves as a filler. On 
new lumber all knots and sappy places should be given a coat of shellac 
before applying the paint. Puttying the nail holes, cracks, etc., is done 
next. This is done after the filler coat is applied so that the dry boards 



166 ■ SHOP WORK 

will not absorb the oil in the putty and let it fall out. Two or three coats 
of paint are enough, depending on the consistency of the paint. Each 
coat of paint should be given plenty of time to dry before applying an- 
other but do not allow the building to stand too long between coats. 

Interior Finishes. — The scope of interior finishing is far greater 
than exterior finishing, in that it embodies staining, shellacing, varnish- 
ing, waxing, and the working of these materials on floors, pianos, furni- 
ture, carriages, etc., as well as a knowledge of much of the material 
which goes to make up paints. 

Stains. — Except in fuming, a medium by which wood may be col- 
ored is called a stain. In all cases, the grain and characteristics of the 
wood must show through the coloring. The wood coloring stains are 
the following: 

Spirit soluble stains ; 

Water soluble stains ; and 

Oil soluble stains. 

Water and spirit stains penetrate the grain of the wood better than 
oil stains, and water stains better than spirit stains, because spirits 
evaporate so rapidly that it has but little time to penetrate the wood. 
Care should be taken with water stains on thin veneer, because, if care 
is not taken, the water may weaken the hold of the glue and cause the 
veneer to blister. Any of these stains, especially the water stains, may 
raise the grain of the wood. If it does, take a piece of 00 sandpaper 
and sand off the thread-like fibers very lightly and color the filler to 
match the stain. However, a safe way is to raise the grain of the wood 
first. This may be done with a light coat of warm water, applied with 
a rag; a weak solution of alum water is still better. After the grain 
is raised, sand it down, dust off thoroughly and then the stain may be 
applied. 

Stain Shades. — Stain shades may be had in any shade of brown, 
red, green, etc., and are marked as : 

Golden Oak; Mission Oak; 

Weathered Oak ; Bog Oak ; 

Early English; Fumed Oak; 

Flemish Oak; Mahogany. 

Fuming. — Any wood that contains tannic acid and is unfinished, 
mellows with age. This is due to the chemical reaction of the free am- 
monia in the air with the tannic acid in the wood. To get the same 
results in a short time, the furniture is subjected to ammonia fumes, or 



WOOD FINISHING 167 

the ammonia is applied with a brush, and the piece is held in an air tight 
box until it reaches the right shade. This process, as the name indi- 
cates, is called "fuming". 

Fillers. — Fillers are of two classes — liquid and paste. Liquid fillers 
are best adapted for close grained wood such as maple, gum, etc., and 
to classes of work where it is impossible to work with a paste filler, as 
on intricate carvings. The purpose of the filler, whether liquid or 
paste, is to positively seal and to level the pores with the surface 
of the wood so that there will be absolutely no chance for moisture 
to enter the wood. Its application is the most important operation in 
the finishing room, as it is the real preservative, as well as the base over 
which an artistic finish may be applied. 

Use of Liquid Fillers. — A liquid filler is applied with a brush. 
Care should be taken to cover the entire surface with a light coat and 
to give it plenty of time to dry. This time varies according to the 
humidity of the air. Before another coat of filler can be applied the 
liquid filler must be worked down with steel wool or fine sand paper. 
This operation removes the dust particles which may settle on it while 
the filler is still sticky. Never use liquid filler on floors or surfaces 
exposed to the weather. 

Use of Paste Fillers. — The paste filler is far superior to the liquid 
for open grain woods such as oak, ash, chestnut, etc. It will actually 
fill and level the pores of the wood with one application, if properly ap- 
plied. The paste is worked into a solution by the addition of gasoline 
or turpentine, of a good working consistency, and is then applied to the 
surface and permitted to set long enough for the gasoline or turpentine 
*to partially evaporate which leaves a thin film of the paste spread over 
the surface. This film should be worked into the pores by rubbing the 
surface across the grain of the wood and finished with a light stroke with 
the grain. Give this plenty of time to dry thoroughly and work with 
fine sandpaper before applying another finish coat. 

Application of Fillers. — Fillers may be applied over any stain or 
dye, but should be colored to match the stain. In many cases the colors 
are mixed with the paste filler and applied on the bare wood, omitting 
the stain coat. 

Shellac. — Shellac is a product of the East Indies, coming principally 
from Bengal and Siam. It is a resinous incrustation formed on the 
twigs and branches of various trees by an insect which infests them. 
This insect is closely allied to the cochineal insect, which yields a red 
dye color. The term "lac" in Sanskrit means 100,000, and is indicative 
of the countless hosts of these insects which make their appearance 



168 SHOP WORK 

twice a year, in July and December. These minute insects breed in 
myriads on the twigs and branches, and feed from the sap. The insects 
begin at once to exude the resinous secretion, which forms a cocoon, 
from which exudes the Lac Dye of commerce, over their entire bodies. 
Lac incrusted twigs, called "gatherers", are known in commerce as 
"Stick-Lac". The resin is crushed into small pieces, washed free from 
coloring matter, and is known as "Seed-Lac". When melted, strained 
through canvas, and spread out in thin layers, it is known as Shell-Lac. 
Shellac varies in color from dark amber to almost pure black, but is 
bleached by dissolving it in caustic potash and passing chlorine gas 
through it. This material is used in combination with copal varnishes, 
and from it is manufactured a very fast drying and durable material, 
used principally where quick results are desired. 

Use of Shellac. — Owing to its peculiar nature of resisting oily 
materials, such as varnishes of all kinds, shellac is not a desirable mate- 
rial to use in combination with oil varnishes. A piece of finishing 
should be done either with shellac varnish exclusively, or oil varnish 
exclusively. Owing to their directly opposite natures, the two should 
never be mixed. For example : To finish a floor, say for instance, maple, 
if the work must be hurried through, by all means use a good quality 
of white shellac varnish. On darker woods use orange shellac var- 
nish. If time can be spared, as it should be, owing to the 
far greater durability of oil finish for floors, use a floor finish of some 
reputable make, which has for its base linseed or Chinese Wood Oil. 
Shellac is also used in the manufacture of sealing waxes and cements. 
Shellac "sets" very quickly, and if a dark shellac is used, one must be 
very careful not to let the liquid lap by the strokes of the brush. When 
necessary to thin shellac, always use denatured alcohol. 

Turpentine. — Turpentine comes from the swamp pines of North 
Carolina, Georgia and Alabama. What is known as Canada Balsam is 
also a turpentine. The last named material is of very heavy gravity — 
about the consistency of glucose — and is quite expensive arid very 
little used in varnish making. Its principal use is for pharmaceu- 
tical purposes. Turpentine is separated from the resin by distillation, 
in combination with water solutions of alkaline carbonates. The water is 
removed further by distillation over calcium chloride. The specific 
gravity of turpentine is .865 as compared with water. It is the best 
solvent yet produced for gums except shellac gum as alcohol is used in 
dissolving the latter. It is used for a thinner of paints; as a solvent 
for oil soluble stains ; with paste fillers as a medium for spreading the 
paste. 



WOOD FINISHING 169 

Varnishes. — In modern, progressive times, chemistry has entered 
extensively into the science and art of varnish making, in which industry 
gum copal, linseed oil, spirits of turpentine, naptha and, in recent years, 
Chinese Wood and Soya Bean Oil, enter as the essential compotents of 
all varnishes, with the exception of those classed as "spirit varnishes". 
The principal oxidizing agents used in producing the hard, quick drying 
properties in varnishes are the following : Oxide of manganese, borate 
of manganese, sulphate of manganese, red lead, litharge, sugar of lead 
and umber. In recent years, resinates of these materials, which have 
proved of great value to the varnish maker, have been placed upon the 
market. These materials are incorporated in the oil and, under con- 
tinued, excessive heat, reaching as high as 600 degrees Fahrenheit, 
and continuing for a period of from six to ten hours, liberate their 
atoms of oxygen, which are completely taken up by the oil and which 
are then converted into what is known as drying or prepared oil, ready 
for use and amalgamation with the gums. 

Rubbing Varnish. — Rubbing varnish should always be made of 
what is known as hard copal, such as Kauri, Zanzibar, North Coast or, 
Benguela, and the foundation upon which it is laid must be good, hard- 
drying paste filler, or varnish that is absorbed by the pores of the wood, 
to make the surface for successive coats of the rubbing varnish. It is 
therefore very im.portant that this foundation coat be thoroughly hard, 
or seasoned, before applying the first coat of varnish. If coats of rub- 
bing varnish are applied prematurely, or ovei" a soft foundation, there 
will be a tendency to sweat, or enamel, as it is sometimes called. The 
time required for the hardening of a rubbing varnish depends upon 
climatic conditions, temperature and the quantity of oil used, and varies 
from 7V2> 10, and up to 15 gallons to the 100 pounds of gum, and de- 
pending on whether a quick, medium, or durable rubbing varnish is 
required. 

Pitting of Varnish. — Pitting of varnish is due to moisture, the pres- 
ence of albumen in the oil, too much drier in the oil, and too much body 
to the varnish when well spread. 

Cracking or Checking. — Cracking of varnish is caused chiefly be- 
cause the undercoat is not well seasoned or thoroughly hard. There is 
a tension underneath the top surface, or finishing coat, which the finish- 
ing coat cannot withstand. It is also caused by sudden changes of tem- 
perature, lack of oil, the presence of rosin, too much drier, or by the 
varnish as applied having too much body, or thickness. 



170 SHOP WORK 

Chilling of Varnish. — Chilling of varnish is principally due to its 
application to a cold surface, or in a room where the temperature is 
below 70 degrees Fahrenheit. To obtain the best results, varnish should 
be of the same temperature as the room in which it is used, and this 
temperature should never be under 70 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Kauri Gum. — Kauri gum is the most important and most exten- 
sively used of any of the fossil gums. It is obtained from the Kauri 
tree which has its growth in New Zealand, in the northern island only. 
The Kauri tree attains a height of 160 feet and ranges from 5 to 12 feet 
in diameter. These trees are largely exported to Great Britain for use 
as ship masts. The exportation of the Kauri tree, together with that 
of the Kauri gum, forms one of the principal industries of New Zealand. 
About $3,000,000 worth of Kauri gum is exported annually from that 
country. This material is dug from, the ground at a depth varying 
from 6 to 18 inches, and is the product of an exudation from trees ex- 
tinct for possibly a thousand years. The area over which the digging is 
conducted is perfectly barren. The supply of this gum is becoming 
more scarce each year. 

Manilla Gum. — This gum, while not as hard as Kauri Gum, is 
used extensively because of the plentiful supply. In fact it is coming 
rapidly into favor for general use. The melting point is somewhat lower 
than Kauri Gum but a good varnish is made from it. 

Zanzibar Copal. — Zanzibar Copal is the hardest and most expensive 
gum known to the varnish maker. This gum comes from the east coast 
of Africa, is fossil copal, and is found imbedded in the earth over a 
wide belt of the mainland coast, where not a tree is visible. It is dug 
from the ground at a depth of 4 feet and occurs in pieces varying in 
size from that of a small pebble to masses of several ounces, while, 
pieces weighing from 4 to 5 pounds have been found. In this gum, 
perfectly preserved insects, such as flies, spiders, mosquitoes, and other 
forms of animal life, are sometimes found, though quite rarely. After 
freeing the gum from foreign matter, it is submitted to various chemi- 
cal operations for the purpose of clearing the *'goose-skin", the name 
given to the peculiar pitted-like surface of the fossil copal. This "goose- 
skin" effect is supposed to have been formed by the impression of the 
sand into which the resin fell in its soft, raw condition. The digging 
is conducted by the natives in a careless manner, owing to the fact that 
the work is done by untutored tribes. This makes the gum very difli- 
cult to obtain. 



WOOD FINISHING 171 

Many other gums are also used in making various varnishes such 
as Sierra Leone, Bengulla, Brazil, Accra, Congo, Kameron, Borneo, Singa- 
pore and Amber Colophony. 

Damar Gum. — Damar gum comes from India and the islands of the 
East Indian Archipelago. It is the product of a huge pine tree which 
grows principally in Java, Sumatra and Borneo. This gum is very soft, 
has a veiry low melting point, and is readily soluble in turpentine, form- 
ing an almost colorless varnish. It is used principally in making white 
enamels and should not be used for any other purpose. 

Filtering and Aging of Varnish. — The questions of the filtering and 
aging of varnish enter very seriously into the product of the varnish 
maker. When the varnish is being made, and while at a temperature 
of 300 degrees, it is passed through a filter press, under 90 lbs. pressure 
to the square inch, which forces the varnish through a series of 22 
sheets of canvas duck of the thickness and texture of an ordinary sail, 
such as are used on vessels. Recent inventions have improved filtering 
devices. The most successful device now used is one which employs the 
principle of the cream separator. After passing through this process of 
filtration, the varnish is pumped into storage tanks and allowed to stand 
for at least six weeks before being offered to the trade, for the purpose 
of incorporating all of the various ingredients which enter into its for- 
mula. The highest grade varnishes, such as carriage, piano and rail- 
way varnishes, are a^ed six months before they are matured for use 
in these particular industries. 

Uses of Varnish. — The varnish maker is called upon almost every 
day for some special varnish to meet the requirements of the almost 
numberless uses to which varnish is put. It is a fact well known that 
it is almost impossible nowadays to market any article manufactured by 
the carpenter or cabinet maker without calling upon the varnish maker 
for some particular finish or result necessary to be accomplished before 
the product is marketable. Some people have the erroneous impres- 
sion that all varnish is drawn from the same tank. As a matter of 
fact, there are on file over 100 distinct standard samples of these pro- 
ducts, which, in some cases, are sent out as made, and, in many other 
cases, are blended with other goods. to meet the almost unlimited require- 
ments and demands of twentieth century progress. 

Wax. — Wax is a paste, based with Caranauba Wax and paraffin, and 
used in polishing. It should be put on either with a rag or a brush, and 
permitted to set until it becomes stiff and then polished by rubbing with 
rags or felt. 



172 SHOP WORK 

Application of Interior Finishes. — It is well to remember that a 
good finish over a poorly prepared piece of wood is next to impossible. 
The secret of wood finishing lies in getting the wood ready, as well as 
in the exercise of extreme care and patience which are necessary for the 
correct application of finishing material. The wood must be smooth, 
free from dust, and free from glue and water. 

Natural Finish. — For a natural filler, paste or liquid filler should be 
used, depending on the grain of the wood, and should be applied care- 
fully as described above in the section treating of fillers. Plenty of 
time should be given for the filler to dry thoroughly ; the surface should 
then be sandpapered with 00 sandpaper, and two coats of white shellac, 
or more if necessary, should be applied, giving each coat plenty of time 
to dry. Each coat should be worked down with steel wool or sandpaper 
before applying another coat. Extreme care should be taken not to 
cut through to the bare wood with the steel wool, especially on colored 
pieces. After the last coat of white shellac is properly worked, the 
piece may be finished either with wax or with varnish. Two coats of 
wax, well rubbed, will produce a beautiful dull gloss; but the surface, 
to retain its lustre, should be rewaxed about every six months. Var- 
nish may be applied similarly to shellac, but better results may be had 
by working it down with pumice and oil. Several coats of thin varnish, 
properly worked down, and with the final polish put on by rubbing with 
burnt flour, are required to obtain the looking glass polish. 

Stains. — To stain wood properly, select any of the stains, as they 
are all put on in the same manner. Apply the stain to the wood with 
a brush and wipe to the desired shade with a rag, thus bringing out the 
grain of the wood. Follow this, after the stain is dry, with a filler, 
colored to match the stain, unless a liquid filler is used, in which case 
an orange shellac should be used. Permit this application to dry thor- 
oughly and then sand lightly, being careful not to cut through the 
coloring. If desired, several thin coats of shellac may be applied, allow- 
ing each plenty of time to dry, and working each well before the next 
coat is put on. Shellac should never be applied in heavy coats. Al- 
ways use shellac in very thin coats. It is advisable to use a good var- 
nish wherever possible. The finish will last longer, hence it is more 
economical. A wax or varnish finis hmay be worked over this. 

Order of Application. — The student will observe that the natural 
order of procedure in the finish room is as follows : 



WOOD FINISHING 173 

^ , r natural. 
Color J , . J 
]^ stained. 

Filler fP^^^.^: 
1^ liquid. 

Body shellac. 

r varnish. 
Finish J hard oil. 

[wax. 

Things to Remember. 

That the wood must be in the best condition. 

It takes time and patience to put on a good finish. 

Wax should not be put on over a stain, as the solvent of the wax cuts 
the stain. Apply a light coat of shellac over the stain and then apply 
the wax. 

The brush must be free from foreign material. 

It is better to apply several thin coats of shellac or varnish than one 
thick coat. 

Water is detrimental to any oil stain. 

Glue will show through any stain. 

Keep the piece worked upon in a warm place, free from dust. 

When you are imitating woods with finishes, it is better to select a 
wood with a similar grain. 

Never hurry the work. Give each coat plenty of time to dry, except 
the paste filler. This coat must be worked while it is soft as it sets 
very hard. 

There are varnishes made for outside service. 

For tables and chairs, use a varnish that sets hard and that will 
not show scratches easily. 

Use only denatured alcohol to thin shellac. 

Do not get shellac on the hands. 

A varnish will not stick over a wax, but a wax will stick over a 
varnish. 

Homemade stains are good, if mixed in a paste filler and applied as 
a filler. 

When you are through, put away your stains, etc. Clean out the 
brush, and anchor it in, a can of oil so that the weight of the brush 
will not be on the bristles. 



CHAPTER XII 

PERIOD FURNITURE 

Furniture Types. — Within the scope of a single chapter it is impos- 
sible to go into detail regarding the development of the various types 
of furniture. A whole volume would not be sufficient to give a clear 
understanding of the subject since there are so many angles from which 
it may be viewed. Furniture making began simply to fill a need; yet 
along with the need came a disposition to regard it as an art. To find 
the reasons for the various types of furniture one must go to the his- 
tory of the times in which the types were created. Various impulses 
led to the creation of these various types. One can readily see a reflec- 
tion of the history of the period, suggestions of the social and economic 
conditions and everywhere evidence of the ability of the craftsmen who 
created the designs. 

Egyptian. — Even in primitive times, furniture, though exception- 
ally crude, was used. Egypt has furnished many rare examples of hei 
craftsmen's handiwork. The numerous excavations in that country 
have materially increased our knowledge of what the Egyptians really 
did. The artisans sought their inspirations for their designs from 
nature herself. Beauty was their goal. Vegetable forms were used 
as guiding impulses for exterior work while animal forms furnished 
the lines for household furniture. The claw foot, so frequently used 
on the legs of furniture, is a product of these times. Egyptian designs 
furnished the details for Greek and Roman furniture making while it 
was at its best. 

Early European. — European styles prior to the thirteenth cen- 
tury furnished but little suggestion in the way of interior fittings. 
Every man's house at that age was a fortress. The chest, an abso- 
lute necessity, was the most valued piece of furniture, for it was the 
family's storehouse. Architecture flourished as an art before furniture 

174 



PERIOD FURNITURE 



175 



making. As- a result, the first furniture 
designs harmonized distinctly with Eu- 
ropean buildings. For example, a back 
of a chair often took the design of a 
Gothic window. 

Renaissance. — The renaissance 
brought with it new ideas in architec- 
ture and these were carried out in their 
furniture designs. The tables, cup- 
boards, beds and chests were all treated 
more or less like miniature build- 
ings. Consequently, the column and 
pilaster played important parts in fur- 
niture design. The fronts of presses 
and cupboards were treated as facades 
of palaces and temples. Both oak and 
walnut were used extensively because 
these woods, especially the latter, 
yielded, with beautiful effect, to the 
carver's chisel. 

Lines and Harmony. — As previously 
stated, our chief interest in period fur- 
niture must necessarily lie in the study 
of lines and harmonies. In cabinet 
making it is not intended that one shall 
confine himself wholly to a type of fur- 




FiG. 272. — Gothic Chaie. 




I u 

Fig, 273. — Elizabethan Chest, 



176 



SHOP WORK 



tiiture which embraces nothing more than the work involving a series 
of joints. Pleasing lines, symmetry and decoration, are to receive proper 
attention with a view to embodying them in the projects created. It 
may not be possible or advisable to attempt to make an exact repro- 
duction of a piece of period furniture but it is wisdom to reproduce 
as accurately as possible its characteristics so that the student also finds 
himself a real artisan rather than a shop worker only. 



Jacobean. — By the very nature oi 
the furniture of the earlier times, re- 
production is inadvisable. With the 
year 1603 begins a period where there 
is a type of furniture making, dis- 
tinctly different from the preceding 
periods, which have now become obso- 
lete. We refer to the Jacobean period 
which dates from 1603 to 1688. The 
furniture was stout, clumsy and se- 
vere in form, even though there was 
considerable ornam'ent. It matched 




Fig. 274. — Jacobean Chaie. 

the course manners and the earnest- 
ness of the people. Straight lines pre- 
dominated and the low forms were in 
keeping with the low-ceiled rooms. 
Heavy rails and posts were mortised 
and tenoned and frequently pinned to- 
gether with wooden pins. 

William and Mary. — The William 
and Mary period, 1688 to 1702, was of 
short duration. With the accession of 
these rulers in England we can see a 
marked increase in popular apprecia- 
tion of refinement and simplicity. The 



queen had excellent judgment in mat- p^^, 275.— William 




AND Maby Chaie. 



PERIOD FURNITURE 



177 




ters of furniture and decoration and her taste, through its influence in 
court circles, had great weight in determining styles for the whole 
kingdom. The contour of William and Mary furniture was distinctly 

different from any which pre- 
ceded it. The curvilinear ele- 
ment came into play for the first 
time. Legs had inverted cup or 
spindle turnings. Stretchers be- 
tween the legs were common. 
Seats of chairs were nearly 
square with a slight narrowing 
to the back. Backs were high 
and usually straight across. All 
cabinet work of the period was 
simple. There were no shaped 
fronts to complicate the joinery. 
Legs were always braced by 
stretchers so that the whole was 
quite substantial, 




Fig. 276. — William and Mary Cabinet. 

Queen Anne. — With the reign of 
Queen Anne we pass to a period entirely 
different from the preceding ones. People 
seemed to have been possessed with a cer- 
tain sturdy, wide-awake spirit. Modern 
England was begun. The modern spirit 
asserted itself especially in the evident de- 
sire and determination to improve condi- 
tions of domestic comfort. The change 
was noticeable in the houses of people of 
all classes. This demand for comforts 
and conveniences meant that chair and 
cabinet-makers were called upon, not alone 




Fig. 277. — Queen Anne Chair. 



178 



SHOP WORK 



for increased production, but for changes in models and styles. The 
constructive features of the furniture are easy to see. The perpendicu- 
lar legs with inverted cup-turnings were replaced with the cabriole leg 
and shaped stretchers went out of fashion. The typical Queen Anne chair 

is a strongly characteristic piece of 
furniture. The uprights of the back, a 
few inches above the seat, break at a 
sharp angle and curve inward only tO' 
swell again in a graceful curve at the 
top which goes over in a bow and Joins 
without break of line to the other up- 
right. A similar curve forms the leg. 
Stools were in popular use. They fol- 
QxjEEN lowed styles prevalent in chairs but 
they were often fitted with loose 
cushions. 




Fig. 278.- 



-Stool — Pekiod 

Anne. 



Louis XIV, XV, Z7/.— England was 
never able to escape the French influ- 
ence in her furniture designs. At times 
the workmen copied very little, at other 
. times they were carried away by French 
influence. To copy French types is im- 
possible; they are too ornate. But since 
some of the period types so clearly re- 
flect the political, social and economic 
history of France, they deserve at least 
brief mention. The reigns of the three 
Louis'— XIV, XV, XVI— produced fur- 
niture which, while possessing certain 
common characteristics, showed marked 
differences. When Louis XIV came to 
the throne he burst forth into extrava- 
gances which have never been equalled. 
His ministers supplied him with enor- 
mous sums and the greatest artists and 
craftsmen France produced put forth 
their best efforts to follow his plans. 
The workshops were in the Louvre and 
they not only supplied that structure 

with furniture but the many other court buildings as well. Louis' idea 
of pomp was reflected in the lines of all this cabinet work. Lines were 
perpendicular or horizontal, giving a sternness and a touch of severity. 




Fig. 



;T9. — Louis XV Chair. 



PERIOD FURNITURE 



179 



At Louis' death we find that his successor was able to put his person- 
ality into the furniture created in his reign. Every one quit the straight 
line. The ideal form of beauty was the female figure and its curves 
and lines were the ones used. There was an abundance of carving and 
little of the work gives one the idea of great stability. In the reign of 
Louis XVI the cabinet work had less decoration. Both the king and 
queen were cultured, enjoying simple pleasures and the quiet of home 
life. All this was reflected in the furnishings which adorned their pal- 
ace and which were taken as types for the furniture of other homes. 

Chippendale. — Previous to the time of Thomas Chippendale, fur- 
niture styles took the names of the historical periods in which they were 
created. The personality of the cabinet-maker was lost to view. Chip- 
pendale attached his name to the furniture he made. He was able to 
do this, for he was a business man as well as a cabinet-maker. He knew 
the art of advertising as it was then practiced and he made his work- 
shop a meeting place for the folk for 
whom he worked. Moreover, he was 
the first one to publish a reliable book 
of furniture designs. From this time, 
it was the fashion for the best cabinet- 
makers to prepare books of designs, 
wherein they were sure to call attention 
to the styles which they themselves cre- 
ated. Chippendale did not create so 
many designs — he took existing styles 
and adapted them to his own tastes. 
In all of his furniture we note an ad- 
vance in general shapeliness and grace 
of proportion. He u^ed mahogany and 
since it was stronger, tougher and more 
elastic then the native woods, a heavy 
framework was unnecessary. His 
chairs were fitted with fretted backs 
often filled with Gothic designs. The 
top was usually square. Seats were 
of the square type with slight taper 
toward the back. He rarely missed an opportunity to plan some orna- 
mentation of which the letter C was a part. Many pieces of Chippen- 
dale furniture are in excellent condition today for he did his work so 
well. His joinery was without a fault and he knew exactly where- to 
make the strongest parts so that the strains would be overcome. 




Fig. 280. — ^A Chippendale Chaie. 



15 



180 



SHOP WORK 




Fig. 2S1. — Range Table — Brothers Adam. 



The Brothers Adam. — The Brothers Adam were architects and 
designers and not makers of furniture. They created the designs; 
others did the work. Not content with prevaihng styles they sought 
the classic types, chiefly Italian, and made these the framework of 
their own designs. Their success was largely due to their close atten- 
tion to details. The 
same care was given 
to the pattern of a 
chair that was used 
in the creation of 
the plans for a pal- 
ace- Their influ- 
ence was evident, 
for of all the lead- 
ing cabinet makers 
who were their con- 
temporaries, Chip- 
pendale was the 
only one who did 
not yield to their 
influence. The 
Adam style was indeed new. Curving structural lines were practically 
dropped and a form almost angular came into use. All the furniture 
was lighter and more graceful in character. A vase or urn often 
adorned a piece of cabinet work. The typical Adam table was rect- 
angular, semi-circular or semi-oval. Legs were either square or round 
and were fluted. The under framing was straight and decorated with 
swags or drops. 

Hepplewhite. — There was 
no Hepplewhite period, for 
Hepplewhite lived and worked 
while Chippendale and the 
Brothers Adam were doing 
their woi"k. It is possible, 
however, to characterize a 
style which was distinctly 
Hepplewhite's creation. While 
he copied from other designs 
he did add touches which gave 
them a distinct individuality. 
Frequently the Brothers Adam 
turned designs to him which, 
from a structural point of 




Fig. 2S2. — Hepplewhite Table. 



PERIOD FURNITURE 



181 



view, were not perfect. Hepplewhite made 
the needed changes, often adding something 
of his own. The whole Hepplewhite influence 
was for grace, lightness and beauty of con- 
tour. Partly because of his own personality, 
partly because of the influence of the Brothers 
Adam, the use of the straight line predomi- 
nated. There were numerous curved drawers, 
but the top and bottom lines of the piece were 
horizontally straight and their side lines were 
vertically straight, so that all the curving had 
to be done in one direction. In his chairs, 
Hepplewhite was original in his patterns. 
The legs were square, tapered, and either flat 
or grooved. Seats were square. The backs 
took a variety of shapes, but the shield back 
was the most common form. Hepplewhite is 
credited with having used a great variety of 
woods in the construction of his furniture, 
being inclined to employ lighter and more 
common ones than his predecessors. 




B~'iG. 283. — Hepplewhite 
Chaie. 



Sheraton. — To speak of a "Sheraton Period" would be as incorrect 
as to speak of a "Hepplewhite Period," for while Sheraton was putting 
forth his designs, the designs of Hep- 
plewhite and the Brothers Adam were 
also occupying attention. However, at 
the very end of the eighteenth century 
there were a few years in which we 
must regard Sheraton's as the influence* 
which determined the style of English 
and American furniture. He was the 
champion of the straight line in furni- 
ture making. His chair designs are ex- 
cellent examples, nearly all of which 
were made with rectangular backs. 
When not using vertical or horizontal 
lines, he employed diagonal lines with 
good effect. Legs were either square 
and tapered or were round turned and 
fluted. In all we note an excellent pro- 
portion. For decoration, Sheraton made fig. 2S4. — sheeaton Chaie. 




182 



SHOP WORK 



use of inlay and veneer. In one field he was distinctly a pioneer. Partly 
through taste, partly because of a demand, he gave considerable time 
to the creation of mechanical devices which made possible the building 
of combination pieces of furniture. Folding beds and couches, and 
washstands that might be converted into book cases were held in high 
esteem, and were eagerly sought for. 




Fig. 285. — Empire Couch. 



The Empire Period. — Again we must turn to France for the source 
of inspiration for designers and cabinet makers. Wholly unlike the" 
style of the Louis', the French styles of this period were created, not 
because of social or economic conditions nor because of the individuality 
of the French cabinet makers, but they were determined by the Em- 
peror. Napoleon saw the political necessity of creating a new style of 
national art and of furniture. He put the matter in the hands of the 
great French artists. In their work they were inspired by the pom- 
pous military spirit of the times, and seeking to achieve the heroic, 
they sometimes utterly failed to produce anything artistic. Nearly all 
of the furniture was heavily built, being often adorned with mouldings 
of meaningless patterns. While there was variety in the work pro- 
duced, the sofas and couches were among the best pieces of furniture. 
There was variety of shape, but the lines of the backs were usually 
straight. Frequently the arms ended in a scroll and the legs turned 
outward. Decoration on the various pieces of furniture included carv- 
ing, turning, veneering and painting. Despite the lack of dignity, grace 
and refinement in this furniture the glamour of the French court and 
the military spirit caused the English to lay aside their own designs 
and to imitate these. Sheraton once deplored the fact that no matter 
how artistic a piece of furniture might be, it received no consideration 
after the French influence began to be visible. Through an admiration 



PERIOD FURNITURE 



183 



for all things French, the American people, at the beginning of the 
nineteenth century, adopted French modes in dress, manners and styles 
in furniture making. However, in the adoption of styles of furniture, 
Americans made distinct modifications to suit their own tastes. 

Mission Craft. — Mission 
craft is a modification of fur- 
niture forms which in early 
times were used in the missions 
of the West and Southwest. 
Mission furniture was ex- 
tremely heavy, being built on 
straight lines and without or- 
nament. For years it was used 
without modification in Cali- 
fornia, being selected to har- 
monize with the bungalow 
type of house. At length, how- 
ever, mission furniture was 
found to be impractical. It 
was entirely too heavy for the 
housewife to move, so a modi- 
fication — mission craft — came 
into vogue. This held to the 
game structural lines, but the 
weight was considerably les- 
sened. For years this type has been most popular in manual training 
shops. The lines are plain, the joinery is simple and there is an absence 
of ornament. Besides, there is little finish required, as it is desirable 
to finish the project in the natural color of the wood. 




PiCt. 286. — Mission Craft Chair 



PART IV 
QUESTIONS, PROBLEMS, GLOSSARY 



CHAPTER I 
QUESTIONS 

General Tools. 

What tools do you consider necessary for a tool kit ? 

How must a plane be adjusted to enlarge its throat? 

Name two kinds of chisels. How should chisels and plane irons be 
sharpened ? 

What is a T-bevel and how should it be used ? 

What are the essential features of a work bench? How should a 
bench be constructed ? 

Where do we get our standards of measurements? On what tools 
are the graduations stamped, and for what purposes are these tools used ? 

Name the different kinds of clamps and give their uses. 

Saws. 
Name the different kinds of saws, giving their uses. Tell how to 
joint, set and sharpen a cross-cut saw. How are saws made? 
Describe a saw set, giving the principles of operation. 
What are the real differences between a rip- and a cross-cut saw? 

Bits. 
Name the different kinds of bits, giving the construction of each. 
Describe the cutting action of an auger bit. Of a gimlet bit. 
How are the sizes of augers and gimlets designated ? 
What are the essential parts of the head of an auger bit ? In what 
shapes are the shanks made ? 

Bit Braces. 
Name the different parts of a carpenters' bit brace, giving their 
functions. 

Name the different modes of driving bits. 

Files. 

For what purpose is a file made? 
What is meant by the cut of a file ? Name the cuts. 
How are files classified according to kind ? 
By what is the length of a file determined ? 

187 



188 SHOP WORK. 

Abrasives. 
What is an abrasive? 

What purpose does water serve in grinding tools ? ' 
Why are artificial stones so popular in factories? 
How are artificial stones made ? 

Sandpaper. 
How is sandpaper made ? 

What is the real difference between flint and garnet paper ? 
Of what importance is glue in the making of sandpaper ? 
Name the kinds of paper used in the production of sand paper. 
When and how should sandpaper be used? 

Brushes. 
What materials are necessary for brush construction ? 
Where do the best bristles come from ? 
How are chisel brushes made? Dusters? 

Woods. 

How are the trees prepared for the sawmill ? 

What work is done in the sawmill ? « 

Discriminate between timber, planks and boards. 

How is lumber seasoned ? How does this effect the wood ? 

What causes the wood to warp ? What bokrds will warp the most ? 

What is'a preservative and how is it applied? 

Define plain, bastard and quartered wood. How are these cuts 
secured ? 

What is meant by "grain"? 

How is lumber bought and sold? 

What is a board foot? 

Name five woods, giving uses for which they are well adapted. 
Why? 

Wood Finishes. 

What is the purpose of wood finishing? 
What is white lead and how is it made ? 
Discuss linseed oil-, turpentine and colors. 
How are paints made ? 
What is a stain? Fumed wood? 

Of what materials are varnishes made? Where do the gums come 
from? 

Name two fillers and tell how they are applied. 

What is shellac? Wax? 

Why do we thin shellac with denatured alcohol? 



QUESTIONS 189 

Fastening Devices. 

Name the fastening devices. 
Why should a nail be driven at an angle? 
How should a screw be driven into hard wood ? 

How are the sizes of nails determined ? Of screws ? Of corrugated 
steel fasteners? 

What advantage has a wire nail over a cut nail ? 
How is glue made? How is hot glue prepared? 
Define toe-nailing. 

Joinery, Cabinet-Making and Carpentry. 

What is a joint? 

How should joints be constructed? 

Define box-joints, surface-joints, framing-joints. 

What is meant by stress of timber ? 

Name the four main divisions of cabinet pieces. Define assembling, 
anchoring the top, and panel effects. 

Name the parts of a door. 

What are glue blocks and how are they used ? 

What are plans and specifications and how are they related? 

Name three distinct types of furniture. 

What caused radical changes in the forms of chairs, tables, etc. ? 

How are mouldings made? How used? 

What is the difference between a bead and moulding? 

Name the timbers necessary for raising the frame of a house. 

How does a T-sill differ from a box-sill ? 

Name two kinds of siding and tell how each is put on. 

What is meant by well-hole, tread, riser, skirting board, newel post 
and landing? 

Name the timbers necessary to raise a hip roof. 

Name the parts of a cornice. Of a window frame. 

How should wood be squared? Why? 

How should a shallow mortise be cut? A deep mortise? 

What should be the cutting action of a chisel across the end grain? 

What is a bevel ? A chamfer ? Hov/ should they be laid out ? 

Name the different tools used for measuring. 

Dratving. 

Name five lines used in mechanical drawing. 
How are the elevations and plans developed? 
Why is it necessary to have more than one view ? 

Machinery. 

Name the most important woodworking machinery. 
Describe the cutting action of saws. Of surfacers. 



CHAPTER II 
PROBLEMS 

The rule for finding board measure is found in Chapter IX, Part III. 

The following problems are merely suggestions of what is possi- 
ble in this line for manual training shops. We would recommend that 
every exercise made in the shop be put in the form of a problem to 
determine the value of the material used. 

1. How many board feet in a piece of lumber 1 inch thick, 10 
inches wide and 8 feet long? 

2. How many board feet in a piece of lumber 1% inches thick, 
16 inches wide, and 14 feet long? 

3. How many board feet in 23 pieces of lumber % inch thick, 
9% inches wide, and 121/2 feet long? 

4. Find the total number of board feet in the following : 6 — 1/6 
— 12 (meaning 6 boards 1 inch thick, 6 inches wide, and 12 feet long) . 

10—1/8—16. 

4—1/2/10- 14. 
13—2/4—18. 

2— 11/2/12— 10. 

5. How many board feet in a piece 14 feet long, 914 inches wide, 
and 1% inches thick? 

6. How many board feet will it take to construct a platform 15 
feet wide and 24 feet long, if the stock is 11/2 inches thick and there is 
a waste of 7 board feet in squaring up the ends? 

7. If a piece of lumber is % inch thick, 12 inches wide at one 
end and 8 inches on the other, and 16 feet long, how many board feet 
does it contain? 

8. A timber 8 inches thick, 10 inches wide, and 12 feet long, con- 
tains how many board feet? 

9. How many board feet are there in five pieces of ll^-inch 
lumber whose widths are 6, 7%, 9, 9l^, and 12 inches, respectively, and 
14 feet long? 

10. Find the number of board feet in a stack of lumber that is 
8 feet, 6 inches wide, 11 feet, 3 inches high, and 16 feet long; the 
boards being 1 inch in thickness. ■ 

190 



PROBLEMS 191 

11. A wagon box whose inside measure is 3 feet, 3 inches wide, 
26 inches high, and 12 feet long, contains how many board feet, if the 
boards are 14 inch thick? 

12. Inclose a 24-foot square with stock 1 inch by 8 inches by 
16 feet. The inclosure is 4 feet, 8 inches high and has uprights, 2x4's 
placed every 6 feet with corners doubled. How many board feet does 
it contain? 

13. At $28.00 per M, how much will it cost for lumber for the 
inclosure in problem No. 12? 

14. Find the surface of an enclosed manual training bench whose 
frame is 22 inches wide, 4 feet long, and 30 inches high; whose top is 
2 inches by 2 feet, by 5 feet, 4 inches long. 

15. At 14 cents per board foot for quartered white oak, how much 
will the following bill of material for a taboret cost? 

1 top l"xl8" xl8'' 

4 legs 2''x 2^' x24" 

4 rails l^'x 2i''xl4" 

4 rails I'^x lV'xl4'' 

16. What is the diagonal of a 12-inch square? 

17. Find the diagonal of a rectangular piece of wood 8 inches by 
12 inches by 18 inches. 

18. How many lineal feet of 1/0 i^^ch by 1/2 inch stock may be cut 
from a i^-inch by 12 inch by 12-foot board allowing 1/16 inch saw kerf? 

19. Find the largest square timber that can be cut from a 17- 
inch log. 

All floor and ceiling lumber must be matched, that is, by tongue- 
and-groove joint. This matching causes waste and must therefore be 
considered in making the lumber bill. In general practice, it is cus- 
tomary to add one-fourth to the bill in flooring and ceiling that runs in 
widths from 21/2 inches to 51/2 inches. If more than one-fourth is added 
for waste, it will be so designated in the following problems : 

20. At $60.00 per M, how much will it cost for lumber to floor a 
room 24 feet inches by 16 feet 6 inches? 

21. Find the cost of flooring and wainscoting a house 328 feet 
inches by 28 feet inches. The house is divided into four equal sized 
rooms. The wainscoting is to be 4 feet, inches high, and capped with 
a flat mould. The cost of flooring is $72.00 per M, of wainscoting, 
$46.00 per M, and the moulding $2.65 per hundred lineal feet. Inside 
partitions to be 6 inches thick. 

22. How many feet of cypress will it take to build a circular silo 
with a 6-foot radius and 26 feet high? The stock is 11/2 inches thick. 
Add 5 per cent for waste in cutting flooring and one-fourth for matching. 



192 SHOP WORK 

23. At $38.50 per M, how much will it cost for the ceiling of a 
porch that is 9 feet wide and 31 feet, 6 inches long and whose rise 
is 4 feet? 

24. A man wishes to lay a 4-foot board walk outside a city block 
that is 300 feet square. He uses 2-inch by 6-inch for the walk and 
2 inch by 4 inch for the supports of which there are three to each board. 
Each board is fastened down with six 20d spikes. (Thirty spikes in a 
pound, at 3i^ cents per pound.) How much will it cost to lay this side- 
walk at $38.00 per M, allowing $42.35 for labor? 

25. How many board feet of solid sheathing is necessary to cover 
a gable end roof, if the spread of the rafters at the base is 28 feet and 
the pitch of the roof is 5/12? Length of the ridge is 36 feet. 5/12 
pitch means that the roof rises 5/12 the span of the base of the rafters. 

26. How many bundles of 250 shingles each, will it take to shin- 
gle the foregoing roof? 

27. How many cubic feet in a foundation wall 9 inches thick, 36 
inches high and enclosing a rectangular building site 24 feet by 36 feet? 

28. How many board feet necessary for 7-inch risers and 11-inch 
treads of a stairway built between floors 8 feet, 9 inches apart? The 
stairway is to be 40 inches wide. 

29. If the rise of the stair horses is 9 feet, 4 inches and the risers 
are 7 inches and the treads are 11 inches, find the run of the stair 
horses. 

30. If it costs 10 cents a cubic foot to complete a house, what will 
a building 28 feet wide, 36 feet long, 12 feet to the eaves, and a gable 
end roof that rises 12 feet above the eaves cost? 

31. A house is 24 feet square and has two cross partitions at right 
angles to each other and both are one foot from the centre of the build- 
ing. How many yards of plaster are necessary to cover the walls and 
ceiling in all four rooms? Let the ceiling be 8 feet high. 

32. A gallon of paint covers 700 square feet. How much paint 
will it take to cover the walls of a barn 20 feet wide, 30 feet long and 
16 feet high? Figure the gable ends triangular shape 20 feet wide and 
8 feet high. 

33. What safe load (tension strain) will a half-lap joint made of 
4-inch by 4-inch white pine, carry ? 

34. How long will a roll of screening be that will screen three 
openings on a porch, using screening that is 42 inches wide ? Openings, 
36 inches by 8 feet, 36 inches by 12 feet and 36 inches by 6 feet. Count 
fractions of strips as whole strips. 

35. A cylinder 2 inches by 6 inches is to be covered with veneer. 
Find the measurements of the veneer necessary to cover the cylinder. 



PROBLEMS 193 

36. A grindstone 6 inches in diameter makes 274 revolutions per 
minute. How far will a point on the circumference travel in a half 

hour ? 

37. A band saw has wheels 36 inches in diameter and 4 feet, 6 
inches from centre to centre. How long a band saw blade is necessary 
to run over these wheels? 

38. The cross-section of an oil can is a semi-circle. Its radius is 
2 inches. How much oil will it hold? 

■ 39. A planer head rotates at a speed of 5,000 revolutions per min- 
ute. The head is directly connected with a 4-inch pulley, which in turn 
is driven by a 12-inch motor pulley. How many revolutions per min- 
ute does the motor make? 



CHAPTER III 
GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 

Abrasive — Medium by which material may be smoothed and reduced by 
friction. 

Adjustable Throat — The opening- through a plane which may be so reg- 
ulated as to admit any sized shaving. 

Alignment — True to a line. 

Ammonia (spirits of hartshorn) — A pungent volatile gas used in fum- 
ing wood. 

Anchoring the Top — Fastening; attaching to the rails. 

Annular — Ring shaped. 

Arbors — Spindles upon which cutters, stones and saws are mounted. 

Artificial Stones — Manufactured stones, such as carborundum. 

Automatic — ^Mechanically operated. 

Back Saw — Small rigid bench saw, with heavy, reinforced back. 

Band Twisting — To twist a flat bar ; method of making bits. 

Bast — A layer of wood. 

Beads — Trimmings on boards to hide joints. 

Bench Dog — Mechanical device, attached rigidly to bench, and used 
to butt stock, against. 

Bench Hook — Device used at the bench to hold small pieces of wood 
while sawing. 

Bevel — A tool used to establish angles. 

Bevel Gears — Gears which run at angles to each other. 

Blue Prints — Usually working drawings ; plans for construction, so 
developed as to expose white lines on a blue background. 

Bolster — Seat for a chisel handle ; part of a tang chisel. 

Boss — A form. 

Brace Jaw — Part of a brace chuck that holds a bit. 

Breast Drill — A small portable drill. 

Bristles — Hair from a hog's back. 

Burnisher — A tool used for sharpening cabinet scrapers. 

Burr — Metal, projecting from an edge. 

Cambium Layer — The growing part of a stem of a plant. 

Carborundum — An artificial stone used as an abrasive. 

Carter Process — Quick process for forming white lead. 

Caul — An opposite ; used in gluing veneer on curved work. 

Celluloid — Imitation ivory. 

Centrifugal — Proceeding from the center. 

Chamfering — The act of reducing^ stock to the plane of two edges on 
adjoining sides. 

C/iarcoa^— Charred wood. 

Charring — Burning; scorching wood. 

Checking of Wood — Cracks caused by shrinkage. 

194 



GLOSSARY 195 

Chisels — Tools for paring or forming- wood. 

Chucks — Devices used for holding objects. 

C lamps — Holding devices. 

Cleat — A strip of wood used to stiffen a surface. 

Clinch — To make firm ; to hold ; to bend a spent nail. 

Column — A support. 

Coned — Having been formed to each cross section at right angles to 

the axis, is a circle, and the longitudinal section at the center is 

a triangle. 
Compass — Tool used in drawing circles. 
Compass Saw — Saw used in sawing curves. 
Core Box — Form for inner part. 
Cored — Built up with parts hidden. 
Cornice — Trim for overhang for roof of a house. 

Corrugated — Bent into a series of alternate parallel ridges and grooves. 
Corundum — Artificial stone. 

Countersink — To ream a hole to receive the head of a screw. 
Cranked Handle — Mechanical device for turning an object. 
Creosote — A wood preservative. 

Cripple Rafter — Timber forming part of a roof ; a rafter with no bear- 
ing on the plate. 
Cross-Cut Saw — One for sawing across the grain of the wood. 
Cross Feed — Automatic regulation for advancing the cutting tool to and 

from the work. 
Cut of Files — Character of files; relative comparison of their cutting 

ability. 
Cutting Efficiency — Degree of ability to cut. 
Cylinder — A geometrical figure whose transverse section is circular, 

and which d ves not change its diameter throughout its length. 
Disc — Thin objects, circular in form. 
Double Cut — Pertaining to a class of files. 
Dovetail — Method of joining wood. 

Dowel — A guide for bringing pieces of wood together. 
Dowel Plate — A tool used in making dowels. 
Draw Bolt — A bolt used in building heavy wooden frames. 
Drawing the Temper — Reducing the toughness of steel by the use of 

heat. 
Driving Mechanism — Medium by which energy may be transmitted 
Driving Home — Forcing an object into the position intended for it. 
Emery — A mineral used in the manufacturing of abrasives. 
Essex Board Measure — Means for the rapid calculation of board feet. 
Exterior Finish, Paints, Etc. — Media suitable for the preservation and 

decoration of wood. 
Felling Timber — Cutting down trees. 
Felloes — Parts forming the rim of a wheel. 
Ferrule — Metal collar ; used as a clamp for wood. 
Filler — Chemical compound used in wood finishing. 
Fleam — Side bevel of a saw tooth. 
Forged — Formed while hot by hammering. 
Foundation Frame — Part of the buiMing resting on the foundation. 



196 GLOSSARY 

Frame of the House — Structure composed of dimension stock. 

Fourdrinier — A machine used in making paper. 

Fuming — Aging wood by the use of chemicals. 

Garnet paper — A paper similar to sand paper ; made of garnet. 

Gasoline — A bi-product of crude oil. 

Gauge — A measure. 

Gearing — A means of transmitting energy by the use of cogged wheels. 

Gimlet — A small bit for piercing wood. 

Glued — Having been put together with an adhesive medium. 

Gouges — Tools used in the forming of wood. 

Grain — Direction of fiber. 

Hacksaw — A saw used for cutting metal. 

Handsaw — Term usually applied to all saws for wood, that are to be 

operated by hand. 
Helical Groove — A groove generated with a constant lead around a 

cylinder. 
Hip Rafter — Timber forming the conjunction of two sides of a roof — if 

no T or L is built at that point. 
Inset — To set in. 

Interior Finish — Stains, fillers, varnishes, etc., suitable for the preser- 
vation and decoration of the wood on the inside of a house. 
Joiner — One who does interior woodwork. 
Jointer — A machine for straightening the edges of boards. 
Joints — The part or place where two or more pieces are joined or united. 
Kiln-drying — Artificial method of drying wood. 

Kinds of Files — Referring to the shape of the cross-section of the file. 
Kinks — Short cuts to getting results. 
Lagscrews — Large wood screws, driven with a wrench, and used in 

anchoring machines. 
Lathe — A machine used in turning concave, convex, and cylindrical 

objects. 
Lips — (Auger) Chisel-like blades which lift the shavings out of the 

hole being bored. 
Live Center — Part of the equipment of a wood lathe that drives the 

wood. 
Master-keyed — Controlled by one key. 
Meshes — Openings formed by crossing strings or wires. 
Miter — Cut at 45 degrees. 
Mood — A form. 

Mortise — A recess cut to receive a tenon. 
Motor Drive — Method of transmitting energy. 
Moulding — Specially formed wood for decorative purposes. 
Nibs — (Bit) — Knife-like structures which sever the fiber of the wood. 
Nut Shanks — Shanks of bits designed to be used with large wooden 

handles. 
Offset — To set over. 

Opposite — Form used in clamping veneer. 

Overhead Shafting — A medium by which energy may be distributed. 
Paints — Opaque finish ; medium or pigment used to preserve or decorate. 
Panels — Screens ; parts of furniture, on stairways. 



GLOSSARY 197 

Paraffin — ^A biproduct of crude oil 

Parallel — Objects spaced equally apart. 

Periphery — Circumference. 

Pitch — Degree of incline. 

Plans and Specifications — ^Working drawings and details for the con- 
struction of buildings, etc. 

Protractor — Instrument for establishing degrees. 

Quadrant — Quarter of a circle. 

Rafter — Part of the frame of a roof. 

Rails — Stretchers connecting supporting timbers. 

Rectangular — ^With all angles right angles. 

Renaissance — Revival of learning. 

Resin — A vegetable secretion. 

Revolution — Complete turn around a fixed point. 

Rigid — Made firm. 

Ripping — Severing with the fiber.. 

Ripsaw — A saw designed to saw with the grain. 

Rise and Run — Terms used in carpentry to indicate thq degree of in- 
cline. 

Rotate — To swing any number of degrees with a fixed point as center. 

Sandpaper — Flint coated paper used in smoothing wood and wood 
finishes. 

Sanding — Act of applying sandpaper. 

Sapwood — Outer layer of wood of a tree. 

Scale — Propartion. 

Scraper Plane — Tool used in smoothing rough surfaces by scraping. 

Seasoning of Lumber — Drying. 

Set Screws — Screws serving as clamps in holding one piece to another. 

Shearing Motion — Cutting action. 

Smithing a SaW' — Hammering a saw. 

Snapping Lines — Establishing lines by the use of a line (cord) and 
chalk. 

Specifications — Description of plans. 

Spindle — Arbor. 

Spoke Shave — A form of the plane used for special work. 

Spur of the Bit — That part which leads the bit into the wood. 

Stains — Transparent coloring. 

Stair Threads — The parts of a stairway built to walk on. 

Steel Wool — Steel shavings used to work down finish. 

Strata — Layers ; usually layers of stone. 

Stress — Ability of material to withstand strain ; applied pressure or pull. 

Strips — Narrow pieces of wood and metal. 

Tang — Part of a chisel. 

Tempered — Toughened. 

Tenon — A tongue cut to fit a mortise. 

Threaded Sleeve — Part of a brace chuck. 

Thumb Screw — Set screw driven by use of the thumb. 

Tilting Table — Table which may be tipped at an angle. 

Toenail — Fastening two pieces together with nails by driving them in 
at an angle. 



198 GLOSSARY 

Trestle — A support; saw horse. 
Trestle Clamps — Clamps fastened to a trestle. 
Try Square — Tool for testing squareness. 
Turnery — Pertaining to the turning of wood. 
Turpentine — An oil solvent. 

Universal Saw Table — A saw table with many possibilities. 
Upholstery — The art of applying cushions, trimmings and hangings. 
Valley Rafter — Part of the frame of a roof. 
VaTiadium — A quality of steel. 
Veneers — Thin layers usually of wood. 
Vise — A holding device. 

Warping — Bending, caused by unequal shrinking. 
Water jacket — An outer case of a glue pot. 
Whetting — Removing metal by friction on stone. 

Wing Dividers — A tool used to draw arcs and to transpose measure- 
ments. 
Wood Finishing — The act of preserving and decorating wood. 
Wonn and Gear — Means of transmitting energy. 



INDEX 



Abrasives 

Accidents and treatment 

Accra 

Adam Brothers, furniture 

Aging varnish 

Air seasoning 

Amber Colophony 

Artficial stones 

Artists' brushes 

Ash tree 

Atkins saws 

Auger bits 

Awl 

Backsaw 

Bald cypress 

Band saw 41 

Band twisting , 

Base 

Base mouldings . 

Basswood 

Batting 

Beads 

Beams 

Bench dog 

Bench equipment 

Bench hook 

Bench plane 

Bench stop 

Bench tools 

Bench types 

Bengulla 

Beveled halving joints 

Beveling 

Birch . 

Bird's-Eye Maple 

Bird's mouth joint 

Bits 

Bit braces 

Black Walnut 

Blind mortise and tenon joints 

Block plane 

Blue prints 

Board feet 

Board measure 97, 

Boring tools 

Borneo gum 

Boxing 

Box joints 

Brace and bits, use 

Brace measure 

Braces 



125 Brads 114 

46 Brazil gum 171 

171 Breast drills 120 

180 Bridging 79 

171 Bridle joints 57 

138 Bristles 160 

171 Brothers Adam furniture 180 

126 Brushes 159 

160 Burnisher 17 

143 Burns 47 

106 Butcher saws 105 

121 Butt joints 52, 54 

14 

Cabinet scraper 17 

15 Cabinet scraper sharpening 32 

155 Carborundum 127 

105 Carpenters' pincers 24 

121 Carpentry 75 

85 Carter Process 164 

90 Casing nails 113 

147 C-Clamps 27 

67 Cedar tree 149 

89 Charring 140 

78 Chestnut tree 145 

8 Chilling of varnish 170 

7 Chinese Wood Oil 165 

8 Chippendale furniture 179 

17 Chisels 20 

7 Chisel blades 20 

5 Chisel handles 20 

8 Chisel sharpening 31 

171 Chuck of brace 119 

55 Chute board 38 

21 Circular saws 105 

158 Clamps 27 

144 Cleating 69 

57 Cogged joints 55 

121 Colors 165 

119 Comb-boards • 83 

148 Common nails 113 

55 Compass 12 

17 Compass saw 104 

3 Compressional stress 59 

141 Computation of stress 60 

141 Congo gum 171 

121 Copal 170 

171 Coping saws 105 ■ 

81 Core stock 91 

52 Cornering tool 18 

29 Corner strips 84 

99 Cornice 81 

119 Corrugated steel fasteners 116 

199 



200 



INDEX 



Corundum 127 

Cost accounting 73 

Counter sink 124 

Cracking of varnish 169 

Creosote 140 

Cripple rafter 103 

Cross-lap joints 55 

Crown moulding 89 

Curly maple 144 

Cut nails 114 

Cylinder paper 128 

Cylinder saws 106 

jCypress 155 

Dado joints 53 

Damar gum 171 

Depth gauge 29 

Disston saws 106 

Door frames 83 

Double mortise and tenon joints 56 

Douglas fir 157 

Dovetail dado joints 53 

Dowel bit 122 

Doweled mortise and tenon joints — 55 

Dowel plate 38 

Dowel sharpeners 124 

Draw bolt joints 55 

Drawer fronts 67 

Drawing board _ 8 

Drawing lines 4 

Draw knife 18 

Drills 120, 121 

Dusters 160 

Dutch Process 163 

Edge-to-edge joints 58 

Egyptian type furniture 174 

Elevation 3 

Elm tree 145 

Emery 126 

Empire Period furniture 182 

Essex board measure 97 

European furniture 174 

Expansion bit 123 

Extension bit 122 

Files 131 

File brush ' 133 

File card 133 

File cleaners 133 

Fillers 167 

Filtering varnish 171 

Finishers 172 

Finish nails 114 

Fir 157 

Floor 85 

Floor lining 79 

Ford bit 123 

Fore auger 124 

Fostner bit 123 

Fourdrinier paper 128 

Fox-tail tenon joints 56 



Fractures 46 

Framing joints 54 

French furniture leg 63 

Fuming 166 

Furniture 61, 174 

Furniture legs 62 

Furniture tops 67, 70 

Gable roof 81 

Gambrel roof 81 

Garnet paper 129 

Gauge 11 

Gauge sinks 124 

Gauges of nails 114 

Gimlet bit 124 

Gimlets, measurement 122 

Glossary 194 

Glue 117, 128 

Glue joints 118 

Gouge sharpening 32 

Grain 140 

Grinder 43 

Grinding saw 107 

Grindstones 125 

Grounds 84 

Guards 44 

Gum 149 

Hacksaws 105 

Half blind dovetail joints 54 

Halving joints 21 

Hammers 23 

Hand planer and jointer 42 

Hand rails 87 

Hand screws . 27 

Harmonies 175 

Hepplewhite furniture 180 

Hickory 146 

Hip rafters 101 

Hip roof 81 

Hollow augers 124 

Hopper butt joints 53 

Housed brace joints 57 

House foundation 76 

House frame 78 

House planning 75 

Improvised clamps 27 

Individual equipment 5 

Injuries 46 

Intermediate mouldings 89 

Irwin bit 123 

Jack rafter 103 

Jacobean furniture 176 

Jambs 84 

Joinery 51 

Joints 51 

Joists 78 

Kameron gum 171 

Kauri gum .-, 170 



INDEX 



201 



Keyed mortise and tenon joints 56 

Kiln drying 138 

Knife sharpening 32 

Lag screws 116 

Lap-dovetail joints 55 

Lathes 42 

Ledged miter joints 54 

Level 12 

Linear measure 10 

Lines 4 

Linseed oil - 164 

Longleaf pine 152 

Louis period furniture 178 

Machine equipment 5 

Machine tools 44 

Machinery 40 

Mallets 23 

Manilla gum 170 

Maple 144 

Marking gauge 11 

Measures 10 

Measuring tools 11 

Metric standard 10 

Mission craft furniture 183 

Mission style legs 62 

Miter and butt joints 54 

Miter box 106 

Mortises 23 

Mortise and tenon joint 55 

Mortise and tenon joints with relish- 56 

Mouldings 89 

Multiple dovetail joints 54 

Nails 113 

Nail sets 24 

Newel posts 87 

Nibs 122 

Oak 147 

Oblique mortise and tenon joints 57 

Octagon scale 98 

Ogee mouldings 89 

Oiler 44 

Oil stones 126 

Open mortise and tenon joints 56 

Painting 165 

Panels ____62, 65 

Period furniture 174 

Picket point 36 

Pigments 163 

Pincers 24 

Pine 152 

Pitch 86, 100 

Pitches of rafters 102 

Pitting of varnish 169 

Plain butt joints 52 

Plain dado joints 54 

Plain miter joints 58 

Plane 16 



Plane iron sharpening 31 

Planer and jointer ^ 42 

Plates 78 

Pliers 44 

Polygon cuts 98 

Porches 88 

Problems __1 190 

Project 33 

Quarter-sawing 141 

Queen Anne furniture 177 

Questions 187 

Rabbet joints 53 

Rack construction ; 33 

Rafters 82, 101 

Rafter cutting 99 

Rafter pitches 102 

Rails 63 

Rasps 131 

Ratchet 29, 120 

Reamer 124 

Reciprocating drill 120 

Red Cedar 149 

Red Gum 149 

Redwood 150 

Renaissance furniture : 174 

Ripsaw 14 

Risers 87 

Roofs 81 

Roof framing 99 

Round nose mouldings 89 

Rubbing varnish 169 

Rule 11 

Russell Jennings bit 123 

Safe guards 44 

Sandpaper 128 

Saw bench 40 

Saw parts 107 

Saws 14, 104 

Saw sets 112 

Scaffolding 88 

Scalds 47 

Scale 3 

Scarf joints 57 

Scorer 133 

Screw drivers 25 

Screw driver bit 124 

Screws 105 

Scroll saws 104 

Shanks 122 

Sharpening saws 109 

Sharpening tools 21, 29 

Sheathing 82 

Shellac 167 

Sheraton furniture 181 

Shingling 82 

Ship auger 122 

Shop equipment 5 

Shortleaf pine 152 

Siding 84 



202 



INDEX 



Sierra Leone l"^! 

Sills "^8 

Singapore gum 171 

Single dovetail joints 57 

Sloyd knife 14 

Smithing saws 107 

Snapping lines 88 

Snips 44 

Socket firmer chisel 20 

Solid center bit 123 

Spindles , ^ 

Splice joints ^' 

Splined miter joints 5° 

Spoke pointer 124 

Spoke shave 1^ 

Sprains 47 

Spruce 1^5 

Spur 122 

Square ^^' ^' 

Squaring stock — — l» 

Stains 166. IJ^ 

Stairs °^ 

Standard yard — IJ^ 

Steel square iqa 

Steel wool 1^^ 

Stretcher joints ^° 

Stress ^^ 

Studs Ya 

Sugar maple i** 

Surfacer 41 

Surfacing ^^ 

Surface joints — ^^ 

T-Bevel 12 

Tacks 116 

Tang ^^^ 

Tang chisel f^ 

Tensional stress 59 

Thrust joints 57 

Tool grinder 43 

Tool sharpening 29 

Tools ^ 

Transverse stress ^^ 

Triangles ^ 



Trimmer 43 

Truing 125" 

Trussed mortise and tenon joints — 56 

Try square H 

T-square 8 

Tulip tree 142 

Turpentine 168 

Units of measure 10 

Valley rafters 102 

Vanadium saws 107 

Varnishes 169 

Veneer 91 

Veneer designs 92 

Vises 7, 25 

Walnut 148 

Water seasoning 138 

Wax 171 

Web saws 104 

Wedged mortise and tenon joints — 56 

Well hole 88 

White ash 143 

White lead 163 

White oak 147 

White pine 152 

William and Mary furniture 176 

Window frames 83 

Wing divider 12 

Wood 135 

Wood finishing 163 

Woodworking machinery 40 

Work bench 6 

Working drawings 3 

Working stress 60 

Wounds 46 

Wrenches 44 

Wrought nails 114 

Yellow poplar 142 

Zanzibar copal 170 



